"Unconditional war can no longer lead to unconditional victory. It can no longer serve to settle disputes... Mankind must put an end to war or war will put an end to makind." -John F. Kennedy

What was the Cold War?

The Cold War was not a war of open warfare, tanks, or trench warfare such as World War II which was just ending, but a battle of ideas between Russia and (USSR) and The United States of America. It was caused by the sudden growth and aggressiveness of communism and the reaction to it by the American leaders. The world was basically divided into two: Communism and Capitalism.

Communism vs. Capitalism

Russia, or the Soviet Union, had been a communist country since 1917. America had an economy run by capitalism and was highly against the ideas and standards of communism. America and Russia had been allies in WWII along with Great Britian, and worked well together against Nazi Germany, a fascist country. However, after the war, the Soviet Union emerged as a very powerful nation, and by the late 1940s, communism was on its way to becoming a more serious threat.

The End of World War II & The Big Three

Franklin Roosevelt (United States), Winston Churchill (Great Britian), and Joseph Stalin (USSR), were known as the Big Three during WWII. They worked together to get rid of Nazi Germany, who was being run by Adolf Hitler. Roosevelt and Churchill were democratically elected leaders whereas Stalin held the powers of a dictator in a communist country. These differences created tensions between the allies. The Big Three, while a well known alliance, only met twice during the war. They first met at Tehran in 1943 to plan and coordinate attacks against Germany. In 1945, they met again in Yalta to plan how German countries would be liberated post war, and they also agreed that free elections would be held in the liberated Eastern Eueope countries. Agreements between the three countries were made, and the United Nations was formed. A few weeks later however, the Big three was broken. Roosevelt died and was replaced by Harry Truman, Churchill was defeated in an election and replaced by Clement Atlee, and Stalin was the only one left. Luckily, Germany surrendered on May 8' 1945. The new leaders met, and there were already some difficulties. The war ended after two atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. World War II was officially over, and the Cold War was only beginning.

"An iron curtain is descending upon Europe." -Winston Churchill, March 5, 1946

President Harry Truman

President Trumn was kind of thrust into his position. Even as Roosevelt's Vice President, he lived in the shadows. He was very inexperienced in foreign affairs. However, unlike Roosevelt, Truman viewed Stalin and the communist countries as a threat, which eventually disintegrated America and Russia's alliance. With the USSR and the United States as the two most powerful countries, Truman decided it was time for America to be number one. Truman wished to deal with Stalin through a position of strength. Afraid of communist expansion, president Truman introduced the Truman Doctrine in 1947: the United States would provide any country that was resisting communist aggression. In 1948, Truman put up the Marshall Plan which gave American aid to the Western Europe countries. The goal of the Marshall Plan was to stimulate an economic recovery for Westeen Europe, giving these countries the strength to fight off communism. This plan was extremely successful. A new alliance was formed in 1949 consisting of Great Britian, France, and other nations of Western Europe called NATO. Their primary purpose was to oppose the Soviet Union. Truman guided the United States into a role of world leadership and took the necessary actions to protect our country.

Joseph McCarthy

The time period of 1948-1954 is known as the McCarthy Era. It was a controversial period In America because American power was unequaled, and America felt most threatened from foreign sources. Communism was overpowering in this time period. The late 1940s, communist threat was very significant in American life. Soviets blockaded West Berlin in 1948, and only a year later, communist got involved in the Chinese Revolution. Also in 1949, the Soviets introduced their first atomic bomb. South Korea was invaded by communist forces in the 1950. McCarthy was a man who knew how to play the system. In 1950, he made a statement that he had a list of 295 communist, however there was no list. This was to get the Americans rallied up against communism and bring fame to his political career. Many republicans stood up and took McCarthy's side, which made the democrat president, Truman, look bad. As time passed, McCarthy had concluded that almost everyone in America's top government officials were communists. American society scams more suspicious and less tolerant. "Conformity suddenly became the greatest virtue." Eventually, people lost their jobs and companies refused to hire Those who had been accused of having communist beliefs. This became known as blacklisting. In 1952, things looked up for McCarthy. Republicans dominated the office when Dwight Eisenhower became the new president, and McCarthy was now chairing the Subcommitee on Investigations. However, now attacking his own party's leaders, McCarthy's fame fell. In 1954, his career reached its ruin during his nationally televised hearings investigating communist infiltration of the U. S. Army. McCarthy was censured by the Senate and is power was finished. Joseph McCarthy died in 1957 from alcoholism.

The Eisenhower Years

In 1952, Dwight "Ike" Eisenhower became the president of the United States. One of America's greatest generals in WWII, he won his votes by promising to go to Korea to find a solution to the stalemate of a war. The last two years of the Korean War were known as 'The Battle of the Hills' because the men fought in such terrain around the 38th Parallel. North Korea was putting up a good fight against American troops in South Korea by defending the battle lines. Eisenhower decided to not use open warfare with bombs or direct attacks, but instead with negotiations. During Eisenhower's 2 terms, America thrived: suspicion of communist infiltration ended and economic growth expanded. Stalin, the dictator of the USSR, died on March 5, 1953, and tensions between the U.S. and Russia declined. Reforms brought upon by Krushchev, one of Stalin's successors, gave encouragement to the people in Eastern Europe through communist rule. This caused conflict. In 1956, Hungarian I citizens revolted against communist rule. Because there was little the United States could do without causing another Great War, Hungary remained under communist control. The Soviet Union provided aid to the countries of Sgypt and Syria in hope to expand their influence. They also helped out Vietnam who was still revolting against their French rulers. During this time, the U.S.S.R. advanced in space exploration. On October 4, 1957, Russia launched the world's first satellite up into space. America, afraid that the Soviets would use this new technology to military advances establish NASA in 1958. Within a decade, America's space exploration surpassed Russia.

Kennedy and Krushchev

Crisis in Cuba

For decades, Cuba had a corrupt government. A variet of revolutionary groups began to revolt against Cuba's ruler, Fulgencio Batista, in the 1950s. In 1959, a new government was installed by Fidel Castro; a revolt leader who had anti-Ameeixan feelings. Castro resented the American dominance of Latin America, and Eisenhower began to make plans to assist another evolt against Castro. Castro chose to nationalize all Cuban property owned by American cooperations and accepted aid from the Soviet Union. Castro declared Cuba a communist country. After Kennedy's election in 1960, he stated that it was "the duty of the United States to lead the fight against communism." In the last month of Eisenhower's presidency, Eisenhower had made plans to land Cuban exiles in Cuba to overthrow Castro. Kennedy put these plans into action. On April 17, 1961, the Cuban exiles,landed in Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. America was quickly defeated. This encouraged Kennedy to take a strong stand against communism. Castro asked the Soviets for military and economic aid, however he also asked that they place nuclear missiles in Cuba to stop an American invasion. On October 14, 1962, an American plane photographed the missiles being installed into Cuba. This triggered what is now know as the Cuban Missle Crisis: the closest thing the world has seen to a nuclear war. Many options were considered in America after receiving the news about Cuba's Missle. On October 22, Kennedy made a televised announcement that there would be a blockade around Cuba to prevent any more Russian ships from bringing in missiles. He also demanded that the missiles be removed and warned Krushchev against taking any aggressive actions. Two days later, Soviet ships approached the blockade, but stopped and turned around. Tensions increased when an American spy ship was shot down over Cuba on October 27th. Both Kennedy and Krushchev wanted to avoid war, but neither wanted to give in. Finally, on October 28th, an agreement was made: the missiles would be removed and the United Stares would not invade Cuba. No formal treaty was signed, but both sides kept their promises.

Vietnam

American leaders made the mistake of seeing Vietnam mere,t as a battle between communist and anti-communist forces. Vietnams is a country in Southeast Asia bordered by China to the north and Cambodia and Laos to the west. Vietnamese society was based on agriculture. Vietnam has a long history of struggling for independence. After generations of warfare, Vietnam finally achieved its independence from China in the 15th century. In 1850, French troops were sent to Vietnam and. And it a french colony. The mid 1800s were an age of imperialism. The advances of the Industrial Revolution gave nations of Europe advanced weapons that were far more powerful than what Asia ans Africa possessed. The French took raw materials for their industries and directed the Vietnamese economy. The traditional rulers of Vietnam lost their authority. Nationalism grew throughout Vietnam, and one of the most affected people was Ho Chi Minh. Ho Chi Minh dreamed of an independent Vietnam and believed that communism offered the best chances to be free from France. In 1940, the Japenese defeated the French and now controlled Vietnam's fate, however, Minh despised the Japenese just as much as the French. Assisted by communists Pham Van Dong and Vo Nguyen Ghap, Ho Chi Minh founded an organization known as the Vietminh. The Vietminh was dedicated to arousing a nationalist rebellion and driving all foreign powers from Vietnam; their strength grew. America hoped that Vietminh would rise against Japenese troops and aided Vietminh. When a famine occured in 1945, Vietnam citizens revolted against the Japenese. Japan surrendered against the American allies, and Ho Chi Minh saw this as an opportunity. On September 2, 1945, Ho Chi Minh established the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and wrote a constituio that adapted many ideas out of the American constitution.

The French lost much of their power while Ho Chi Minh gained power. The Geneva Accords provided only a temporary solution,and elections were to be held in 1956 to unify the country under one government. There were concerns from America about the elections because of Diem's unpopularity. American leaders supported his decision to cancel the election, violating the Geneva Accords. From 1955 to 1961, America invested more than one billion dollars in foreign aid to make Diem's government stronger. Despite the trying, Diem did not become a successful leader. In North Vietnam, Minh worked he'd to transform the North Vietnamese economy. Repression in the north was worse than it was in the south. However, unlike Diem, Minh remained popular amongst the Vietmanese people because he had fought for Vietmanese independence. When the elections were cancelled, Vietminh attitudes changed. They were now preparing for open warfare. Members of the Vietminh who remainder in south Vietnam began to revel against Diem's rule. This group was named Viet Cong. North Vietnam sent supplies to the rebels through the Ho Chi Minh trail. By the early 1960s, it was apparent that Viet Cong was taking over Sourh Vietnam as Diem's government was falling. When John F. Kennedy became president, he highly encouraged South Vietnam. Instead of sending military aid, he believed that the government and military needed to become strong enough to be able to defend itself. However, Diem's power was just getting worse, so be sent over 16,000 military advisors to South Vietnam. Despite the efforts, Diem had lost when Vietmanese abuddhist were revolting against him in 1963. American leaders also lost their faith in Diem. Diem was overthrown on November 1, 1963 and was executed.

The Vietnam War Begins

After Kennedy's assassination, Lyndon Johnson became the president. The government of Soutn Vietnam had become more unstable, and the north was still supplying the Viet Conf rebels through the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Like the previous presidents, Johnson believed in the Domino Theory, along with the fact that south Vietnam was a crucial place to stop communism. On August 4, 1964, the Maddox, an American Destroyer patrolling the Gulf of Tonkin, had been fired upon by what was thought a North Vietmanese patrol boat. Johnson wanted the authority to intervene in Vietnam and was quickly granted just that through the Tonkin Gulf Resolution. This resolution gave Johnson the authority to increase U.S. involvement in Vietnsm. He could also decide choices about the war without congress' permission. The decision to expand the war came in 1965 after the collapse of the South Vietmanese are y appeared imminent. In an operation code name "Rolling Thunder," Amerixan planes began bombing north Vietnam. Jon son's hope was that this would stop the supply to the southern rebels. Soon after the bombing, American troops were placed in South Vietnam. American forces destroyed Viet Cong. Johnson believed that bombing Morth Vietnam would end Minh's dreams to unify Vietnam as a communist country. American support was strong, and the principle that communism had to be stopped had been accepted. However, Johnson had underestimated the war in Vietnam. The number of American soldiers in Vietnam increased from 25,000 in 1965 to 500,000 by 1968. The American people still demanded and expected a victory. Johnson did nothing to change the common view that victory was only a few months away.

Peace With Honor...

Richard Nixon's administration had great successes and equally great failures. The relations between the United States, Russia, and China developed through his term. Vietnam was the focal point of his early years in office. Nixon won in the 1968 election by promising to achieve "peace with honor." He understood that America needed to find a path out of Vietnam, while the survival of South Vietnam was stil important. In November, 1969, Nicon announced the policy of Vietnamization where the goal was to make South Vietnam more responsible for their own defense. Like Johnson, he believed that South Vietnam's soldiers were to do the fighting. By 1969, the American people and American congress were severely divided. There were the Hawks, who wished to fight an all out war against Vietminh, and there were the doves, who just wanted the U.S. out of Vietnam immediately. Nixon, however, tried to appeal to those in the "silent majority," a group who wasn't on either side. His announcement of Vietnamization in November did just that. The plan went forward, and American troops were somewhat reduced, but still played a role. Negotiations continued, and Americans trusted that Nixon would end the war. On April 30, 1970, domestic peace was again shattered by a new development in the war. American troops had invaded Cambodia. It seemed again that the United States was escalating the war. Nixon was widely criticized by Congress and the media for his decision. In 1971, secret negotiations between Nixon's National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger and North Vietmanese officals had started. These talks eventually led to America's withdraw from the war. North Vietnamese made an attempt to overwhelm the South Vietmanese military in an attack that became known as the Easter Offensive. South Vietmanese troops fell back, but eventually beat back the North forces. Nixon ordered the American Air Force to resume bombing North Vietnam.

From Relaxation to Confrontation

Richard Nixon's years as president were marked by improved relations with the Soviet Union. The 1970s are know. As an era of relaxation which was accomplished because both American and Soviet ,elders wish to have better relations and slow down the nuclear arms race. Nixon initiated and signed the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks to limit the buildup of atomic weapons. The relaxation period did not last long though because the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979. American leaders reacted strongly and many people feared that the invasion was a prelude to a move to capture the oil fields of the Middle Easr. President Cartee declared and embargo on all American grain sales to the Soviet Union. He then declared a military buildup; America began sending aid to the Afgahan rebels. Relations between the allies again became confrontational. Ronald Reagen was elected as the new president in 1980. Under President Carter, America had suffered through a poor economy. Reagan, however, was a motivated anti-communist. His military plans exceeded president Carter's. The relations between the U.S. And Russia deteriorated in Reagan's first years as president. Under his presidency, America provided military aid to anti-communist guerrillas in Afghanistan known as Contras. The number of nuclear missiles placed in Western Europe increased, and a new space-based anti-missile defense was proposed. While Reagan causes some controversy, he was mostly well liked and was re-elected in 1984. Communist ideas were no longer suffice t to motivate the Russian people due to the dedicated guerrilla fighters in Afghanistan. The threat of intervention prevented any change in Soviet governments. In Polans, a trade union called Soliditqrt attempted to bring about increased freedoms for the Polish people in 1980; by December 1981, a harsher Polish government was installed by Soviet leaders. There appeared to be little hope of the ColdWar ending in the early 1980s.

A New Era

The Soviet Union's state-run economy was performing very poorly. Because most of the recourses were going towards the military, the citizens lived in poor conditions. The Soviets lost all enthusiasm for communism. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the new leader of the Soviet Union. He brought the beginning of a new era in Russia and the end to the Cold War. He knew that the economy was near collapse and that the Russian people were alienated. He knew that there needed to be a more responsive political system, but did not propose to end communism. He proposed new government policies such as perestroika and glasnost. Perestroika, meaning reform, was a term that applied to a wide range of changes that Gorbachev brought to the soviet economy and government. Under Gorbachev, free democratic elections were held and he allowed individuals to form their own business enterprises. More changes occured under glasnost. Glasnost, meaning openness, allowed the citizens and media to understand what was happening inside the government. TheRussian citizens had more rights as 'people.' Gorbachev also brought changes to Soviet foreign policy and made overtures to be U.S. To reduce the tensions of the Cold War. He withdrew troops from Afghanistan, which was another example that he was dismantling the communist empire. The Cold War was bankrupting the Soviet Union and felt that his reforms would not succeed without peace. Gorbachev eventually got President Reagan to trust him, and they met in 1985 and 1986. They made agreements that required both sides to reduce their stockpiles of atomic weapons. Gorbachev was able to transform Russia from a police state to a nation with some freedoms. Despite his efforts, not all Russians and Communists were on board.

The essence of perestroika... Is for people to feel they are the country's master. -Gorbachev, March 1986