Exploring Glass as a Medium Sam Snyder - Apeiron 2025 Washburn University

Glass as a Medium: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives

My exhibit, 'Exploring Glass as a Medium,' is inspired by the use of glass in art and architectural features throughout the centuries. My pieces focus on the relationship between form and hue with abstract designs. To better understand my aims, I explored the historical usage of glass as an art form. The relationship between the historical and contemporary usage of glass is dynamic, yet the art field continues to engage in traditional glass techniques.

The Stained Glass Association of America is an exceptional reference for those interested in learning more about American glass artistry. It elaborates on other techniques of glass-making that I did not mention or use in this project.

My Inspiration

I adore exploring the power of the form in relation to color. My aim with these pieces was to create works that experiment with the overlap of texture, hue, and opacity to demonstrate how these elements impact the design and the viewer's perspective when seen in lightness versus a dimly lit space. I used non-representational imagery to challenge the perception of the individuals' views of contemporary artwork that seems to have no direction 'concept' or deeper meaning than the work and the form it takes itself. Particularly, I am inspired by the glass artist Dale Chihuly, whose works in glass blowing and kiln forming take place in vibrant and whimsical dimensions. I tried to channel the playfulness of color within these pieces rather than focusing on dull and everyday hues. I have had the privilege of seeing Chilhulys work at several venues spanning states and museums that continue to fuel my passion for glass. Additionally, I find that Frank Lloyd Wright's led prairie glass panels have allowed me to find inspiration in the simplicity of playing with the concepts of forms via the elements of line and shape used throughout his architectural works and glass panels.

Glass

Techniques of Stained Glass

Copper Foiling: In the late 19th century, Louis Comfort Tiffany popularized the copper foiling technique with his stained glass lamps ("History of Stained Glass"). However, this method is typically less commonly used for large architectural features because it is less waterproof than the lead came method. Small copper-foiled pieces may have been painted on with enamels to create painting-like details.

The copper foiling technique of glass is done by making the glass fit the pattern via tracing the pattern on a light box or having two patterns and cutting one and pasting it directly onto the glass. Once the individual pieces are traced, a pistol grip or pencil class cutter scores along the lines of the design. Carefully, after each score that runs fully across the class is made, running pliers or grozing pliers are used to break off the pieces of the score. The pieces should be relatively close to the marks traced from the pattern. However, a glass grinder is used to clean up the edges and ensure the glass fits correctly on the pattern

The glass pieces are individually cleaned, and then carefully, the edges are covered with copper foil. The copper foil has one adhesive side and one copper side because the solder cannot ship directly to the glass. After each piece is foiled, the design is arranged together and soldered together with a soldering iron and flux, so the solder becomes a nice bead after tack soldering the piece together. The edges of the piece are typically framed with zinc came and attached by the edge of the solder lines. After soldering, the pieces cool off. Finally, the piece is finished with flux removal and a good rinse and polish. Some prefer to keep the solder lines silver; however, at this stage, the solder can be patinaed copper or black. After cleaning, the design is ready to show!

Lead Caming: Following the same first steps as the copper foiling method, with scoring and breaking glass to create a pattern, instead of putting on foil to the glass edges the edges remain bare and will be covered by channels of H came lead. On a separate board with the pattern working from the bottom left hand to the right top, each piece of glass is inserted into the lead channel and lightly tapped in place by a rubber mallet. Once the design has been fully leaded, each intersection of the lead pieces is soldered, creating a stable connection. However, the glass may still be loose at this stage. Once the front and back are fully soldered, 'miracle mud' or a type of cement putty is applied and pushed to seal the lead channels. Whiting is sprinkled on the lead piece and cement to help absorb the extra spirits and allow for the cement to set. A fid is taken along the lines of the lead came to ensure that no extra cement is left on the glass because it will fully adhere. After the glass sits upright for 24 to 48 hours the piece should be set and ready to polish and brush with a bristle brush.

Terms & Technical Thoughts

Design Term: Hinge Points

Hinge points refer to a straight line going full across a design. This line may extend vertically, horizontally, or diagonally. Without having a line intersect, this section of the design acts as a weak point, a 'hinge,' that may cause the design to fold over on itself or warp over time. Although some design geometric designs do use hinge points, they may use external or internal reinforcement, such as rebar soldered to the exterior of the panel or steel lining inside of the lead came. When designs are larger than several square feet, they are best reinforced. My diptych panels are internally reinforced since they are slender. However, they do not use any hinge points, making the design sturdier.

Fusing Glass

Fusing Glass: Not all glass can be fused together in a kiln. Fusing glass relies on the glass pieces having the same COE and coefficient of expansion rate so that when heating and cooling, the glass will not crack when fusing together. In my fused projects, I used 96 COE glass. However, 90 COE glass is also commonly worked with for users. Softer glass like 104 COE can be used for flameworking and using mandrels and marvers to create marbles and jewelry beads. Essentially, fusing glass is heating glass to target temperature using a fusing schedule with segments that help the glass adapt to the different states of heating a cools to prevent bubbles and devitrification. Fusing is done in a glass kiln, and you can achieve different results dependent on the firing schedule, such as tack fusing, contour fusing, full fuse (seen in my projects), draping, slumping, or casting with a ceramic mold.

Fused glass can be incorporated into copper foiled and leaded stained glass pieces. In my works, my lamp utilized tack fused circles to add more detail to the rest of the copper foiled lamp.

A Brief History: Stained Glass

The exact time frame of the origins of stained glass is still up for debate; however, the practice of creating large architectural features of stained glass dates back to the Gothic cathedrals and the Medieval period, where stained glass and painted glass adorned churches, depicting images from particularly Christian origins ("History of Stained Glass"). The Middle Ages are correlated with the start of the formation of the craft. However, stained glass has little mention or contextualization outside of its framework of being part of an architectural feature (Wigginton 97). Hence, even when researching the historical context of glasswork, unlike traditional media such as paintings, stained glass was considered a 'craft' or a secondary art form and has little known about its original practices (Machado 5). Stained glass can be classified by having a grouping, or at the minimum a pair, of glass pieces joined together through lead came that is welded, but often known as 'soldered' to the stained glass community with solder, which is created from a percentage of lead and tin (Machado 7).

What can be said is that stained glass is that it was first utilized over a millennium ago, with some disputes among scholars ranging near the sixth century of the common era (Wigginton 97). As reiterated, historians have lacked documentation of the art form, and even in early literature, the work is contextualized in words without imagery. Nevertheless, stained glass did play an integral role in cathedral building, which marks the peak of the art's creation near the 15th and 16th centuries (Husband 33). The common connotation surrounding the light let in by the glass reinforced as view that in these Christian places of worship, is that God was closer with the light illuminating through the glass. In cathedrals, the glass was adorned with depictions from biblical stories prevalent in Christianity painted with the grisaille technique to fire and bind to create the images on the individual pieces of glass (Machado 5). When discussing traditional glass techniques, it is important to note the pertinence of the transparency in glass that allowed the light to illuminate the rooms as to some more opalescent glasses created today (Nicholson 98).

As classified earlier by historians as the 'Dark Ages, ' the Middle Ages have still been elusive to scholars about the history and depth of glassmaking techniques. Yet, from what is known, artisans created their glass, and lead came, making the technique not nearly as accessible to modern artists to imitate. Today, glass is sold in sheets most often and lead came is sold pre-made. Moving forward in the 15th century, stained glass became readily available in a domestic manner (Machado 9). Yet, as time went on, the practice continued to wane due to the lack of artisans creating art in this manner.

Contemporary Stained Glass

Stained glass continues to be created using both large-scale and small-scale processes. However, mass production continues to diminish the consumption and purchase of handmade goods. Guilds and locally/family-owned businesses have been able to continue the craft into the 21st century. However, contemporary artists have created a new framework for stained glass that extends from its architectural origins and places the work on a level that seeks to diminish any boundaries between 'craft' and 'art.'

Fused Glass Origins & Contemporary Use

Unlike the former, stained glass, fused glass has primarily been considered for smaller artworks rather than architectural usage, like the former of the stained glass. Ancient methods of fusing and kilns evolved millennia before the common era, with interests beginning in early Egyptian society ("Kiln Glass"). Like the former, there is even a smaller consideration of works documented before the 'modern' times. Fused glass did drop off as a common art form and medium until the revival in the early 20th century ("Kiln Glass"). Maurice Heaton, an artist from the Netherlands, popularized the forms. Heaton experimented with enamels on fused glass, which was popularized as used on glass nearly five centuries prior, originating in the Netherlands and Switzerland (Machado 9). In America, Frances and Micheal Higgins took to kiln working in the early years of WWII ("About Higgins"). They kept a home studio experimenting with the fundamentals of warm working glass ("About Higgins").

Color Theory

Color theory refers to how hues, commonly known as 'colors,' interact with one another to create relationships in the elements and principles within designs. Color theory allows artists to examine how hues pair with one another regarding their intensity (vibrancy known as saturation) and value (lightness or darkness.) Relying on a hue placement in the color wheel, whether it be a cool or warm hue, influences the view mood when seeing a piece. Hence, artists need to understand how the relationship impacts the viewer's experience. Colors additionally may have associations or symbolism conveyed within the context of the hue, such as red may represent 'anger.' Color theory is applied both in CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Key/Black) and RBG (Red, Blue, Green) techniques of the color wheel, with CMYK being a subtractive and RBG being an additive technique. When artists are using a physical model of the color wheel, red, blue, and yellow are the primary colors forming the secondary colors of violet, green, and orange when mixed. In between hues, the tertiary colors are formulated when the hues are gradually added together. This is an additive technique.

Sources

- "About Higgins." Higgins Glass, https://higginsglass.com/about/.

- Hinchliffe, Meredith. “History Fused in Glass.” Craft Arts International, no. 48, May 2000, p. 115. EBSCOhost, https://research-ebsco-com.washburn.idm.oclc.org/c/3yqw6h/viewer/html/oehp3oqrlf?modal=cite.

- "History of Stained Glass" The Stained Glass Association of America, https://stainedglass.org/learning-resources/history-stained-glass.

- Husband, Timothy B. “Medieval Art and the Cloisters.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, vol. 59, no. 1, 2001, pp. 33–39. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3269168.

- "Kiln Glass Through the Ages: A Brief History Lesson." Ed Hoy's International, https://www.edhoy.com/kiln-glass-history?srsltid=AfmBOoo003Ivf0QiUfi3D0QH5PFwXpqusQkC4laJXmbZ3tqN0lnJ2bmq.

- Machado, Andreia Sofia Simões Gouveia. "Historical Stained Glass Painting Techniques Technology and Preservation." Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oct. 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10362/56803

- "Maurice Heaton." Smithsonian American Art Museum, https://americanart.si.edu/artist/maurice-heaton-5894. 

- Nicholson, Arnold. “Masters of the ‘Lost Art.’" Saturday Evening Post, vol. 232, no. 11, Sept. 1959, pp. 97–100. EBSCOhost, https://research-ebsco-com.washburn.idm.oclc.org/c/3yqw6h/viewer/pdf/4akmhvri5r.

- Wigginton, Michael. “The History of Stained Glass: The Art of Light Medieval to Contemporary (Book).” Architectural Review, vol. 215, no. 1285, Mar. 2004, p. 97. EBSCOhost, https://research-ebsco-com.washburn.idm.oclc.org/c/3yqw6h/viewer/html/lawlawvbnv.