Introduction
Pre-colonial and contemporary fisheries of Indigenous Nations demonstrate that human beings are capable of positively augmenting the abundance, biodiversity and health of aquatic ecosystems on regional scales. The following citations are a few of hundreds of examples of ways Indigenous Nations augmented the life-bearing capacity all around them. One common theme we see in these systems is the technique of augmenting the base of the ecosystem. For example, herring fish and their eggs are the foundation of coastal foodwebs as they nourish up the food chain to eagles, killer whales, bears and so much more. Knowing this, Native Nations of the Pacific Northwest intentionally create more herring habitat to boost overall ecosystem health. Another common theme is how Native Nations see non-human neighbors as "relatives", not only equal to humans, but kin to humans. For the Kwakwa̱ka̱'wakw Nation, clams have their own “nations” and humans afford them respect on a nation-to-nation basis within their clam gardening techniques. It is believed that human societies become truly civilized when they can see something as small as a clam as their equal, deserving of a home and of dignity.
"Everything revolves around the herring”: the Heiltsuk–herring relationship through time
Bioregion: Bella Bella, Heiltsuk live in territory now known as “central coast of BC”, marine; west coast forest bosque costero occidental forêt maritime de la côte occidental
Tags: sustainable fisheries, regenerative cultivation, herring, Heiltsuk
Summary: This article highlights the success and longevity of Heiltsuk fishery management techniques as well as the nuanced cultural and ideological foundations that underpin and sustain these practices. By learning from the cultural foundation of the practices, the rest of the world can begin to adjust our worldview to be more respectful, humble, and practical in our marine and fisheries management systems. The results highlight Indigenous fishery management as an instructive source for the rest of the world and a key informant of Canadian fishery management policies moving forward. Furthermore, this article highlights the necessity for the restoration of decision-making power to be shared/returned to Indigenous Peoples in key places as an act of ecological conservation and regeneration.
Implications: This article outlines how Heiltsuk People have maintained healthy Herring populations to feed their communities and to feed surrounding ecosystems for thousands of years. Through their ancient art of kelp forestry, they create more kelp for the herring to lay their eggs on, thereby boosting herring populations and supporting the entire food web. Another practice is dipping large hemlock boughs into the waters, weighted down by stones, which also creates more substrate for the herring to lay their eggs. Heiltsuk social institutions, local and traditional ecological knowledge, and worldview have informed herring management strategies from pre-contact times until present. Authors address how the imposition of colonial management has affected the transmission of local Heiltsuk knowledge and management. The article outlines distinct cultural beliefs and stories behind the management of herring and the specific sustainable strategies employed such as herring habitat expansion. The article embodies proper consultation and partnership with tribal communities.
Reference: Gauvreau, A. M., Lepofsky, D., Rutherford, M., & Reid, M. (2017). “Everything revolves around the herring” the Heiltsuk–herring relationship through time. Ecology and Society, 22(2).
____________________________________________________________________
Pre-Columbian estuarine fishing along the lower St. Johns River, Florida, USA
Bioregion: St. Johns River; St. Augustine (Florida)
Tags: fisheries, sustainable harvest, millennial scales
Summary: Indigenous Nations fished the extensive estuarine/tidal marsh system of lower St. Johns River (the longest river within what is colonially known as Florida). An examination of 8 settlement areas revealed that Native Peoples fished the region for 5,600 years without interruption. This indicates that Native Nations received large caloric inputs and sustainably managed this ecosystem/food system to support dense populations for millennia. Analysis of fish taxa represented in layers of shell midden sediment from different time periods show that mass capture techniques, such as nets, were probably used. Site studies showed that fishing practices were scheduled by season and that locations were often revisited annually.
Implications: Indigenous Nations of the lower St Johns River developed a method of sustainably harvesting a variety of fish species. The extensive area where groups of fossils in rock layers were found indicates that these nations sustainably managed a complex and vast fishing network. More interviews and research could be conducted in partnership with local Native Nations to provide deeper and more nuanced analysis of data collected from sites.
Reference: Fradkin, A. (2015). Pre-Columbian estuarine fishing along the lower St. Johns River, Florida, USA. Environmental Archaeology, 21(2), 161-171.
____________________________________________________________________
Subsistence fishery at Hatahara (750–1230 CE), a pre-Columbian central Amazonian village
Bioregion: Manaus, Brazil
Tags: sustainable fisheries
Summary: Archaeology in the Channel Islands revealed that Chumash ancestors cultivated shellfish on San Miguel Island for at least 11,500 years, practiced intensive kelp bed fishing for at least 8,500 years, and hunted sea otters for at least 8,900 years. These species and habitats of the Channel Islands are now critically endangered after Chumash management was compromised and disenfranchised. The archaeological record indicates continuous, bountiful harvest in the ecosystem, as well as sustainable and productive management of a localized and delicate food web. In particular, the study analyzes the presence of abalone (a seafood mollusk), sea otters, and various species of fish within the archaeological record.
Implications: The diversity of fish species harvested indicates a highly biodiverse system was managed. The large size of some of the fish harvested indicates both a sustainable harvest rate that allowed fish to reach this size, as well as skills and technology to harvest such fish. Explorers' journals were cited indicating that these nations also kept some live turtles in contained areas for later harvest. Combined with the use of crops, the exploitation of fish (and possibly its derived products such as dried fish and fish flower), as well as aquatic turtles, could provide year-round subsistence for large settlements.
Reference: Prestes-Carneiro, G., Béarez, P., Bailon, S., Py-Daniel, A. R., & Neves, E. G. (2016). Subsistence fishery at Hatahara (750–1230 CE), a pre-Columbian central Amazonian village. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 8, 454-462.
____________________________________________________________________
Ancient fish weir technology for modern stewardship: lessons from community-based salmon monitoring
Bioregion: Coastal British Columbia, Canada; marine west coast forest bosque costero occidental forêt maritime de la côte occidental
Tags: sustainable fisheries
Summary: Salmon are vital to the economy and culture of First Nations in coastal British Columbia, Canada. In this region, traditional systems of management, including weirs – fences built across rivers to selectively harvest salmon – supported sustainable fisheries for millennia. In the late-19th century, traditional fishing practices were banned as colonial governments consolidated control over salmon. In collaboration with the Heiltsuk First Nation, researchers revived the practice of weir building in the Koeye River. The weir is used to both harvest and monitor salmon behavior in the area, providing key insights into the state and management of salmon today. High river temperatures are associated with increased en route mortality in migrating adult sockeye. The researchers estimated pre-spawn mortality ranged from 8 – 72% across the four years of study, highlighting the degree to which climate conditions may dictate future viability in sockeye salmon populations.
Implications: These results demonstrate the power of Indigenous technologies and traditional ecological knowledge to support contemporary ecological monitoring and management. The study also shows the efficacy of fusing traditional knowledge and management systems with contemporary scientific approaches in studying ecological phenomena.
Reference: Atlas, W. I., Housty, W. G., Béliveau, A., DeRoy, B., Callegari, G., Reid, M., & Moore, J. W. (2017). Ancient fish weir technology for modern stewardship: lessons from community-based salmon monitoring. Ecosystem Health and Sustainability, 3(6),
____________________________________________________________________
An Artificial Landscape-Scale Fishery in the Bolivian Amazon
Bioregion: Bolivia Amazon; Bauré Indigenous Nation; Moxos Plains
Tags: indigenous fisheries, habitat management
Summary: The ancestors of the Bauré Indigenous Nation of Bolivia oversaw the construction of a landscape-scale earthen causeway system that harnessed rainy season floods and curated an abundant, perennial supply of fish. This article briefly discusses a 525 km2 anthropogenic landscape made of raised fields, large settlement mounds, earthen fish weirs, and canals. Through this technology, it is conjectured that Buaré Peoples were able to harvest enough to sustain large and dense populations in their architected savanna floodplain. Bauré people and their aquaculture system were greatly compromised by Spanish arrival and colonization. This ancient system is still visible on the land despite nearly 500 years of weathering.
Implications: This article joins a plethora of studies confirming the anthropogenic nature of the Amazon River Basin. It demonstrates the ingenuity of Buaré ancestors and their ability to wield immense influence across hundreds of square kilometers to generate sustainable and predictable food sources.
Reference: Erickson, C. L. (2000). An artificial landscape-scale fishery in the Bolivian Amazon. Nature, 408, 190–193.
____________________________________________________________________
Indigenous Environmental Justice within Marine Ecosystems: A Systematic Review of the Literature on Indigenous Peoples’ Involvement in Marine Governance and Management
Bioregion: various (systematic study so all over)
Tags: sustainable fisheries
Summary: This paper reviews studies from January 2015 to September 2020. It focuses on explaining and uncovering the involvement done by Indigenous Peoples in marine governance and management. Moreover, it highlights the environmental injustice that Indigenous Peoples have faced over the years. Their main result showed that Indigenous peoples' suffered inequitable decision-making procedures in regards to the operation of marine protected areas.
Implications: This paper—conjoined with the many papers demonstrating sustainable management of fisheries by Native People—highlights both the lack and importance of Indigenous decision-making power in marine governance. It compels us to continue to find more mechanisms through which Indigenous management can be piloted, integrated, and reinforced.
Reference: Parsons, M., Taylor, L., & Crease, R. (2021). Indigenous environmental justice within marine ecosystems: A systematic review of the literature on indigenous peoples’ involvement in marine governance and management. Sustainability, 13(8), 4217.
____________________________________________________________________
Temperature, Size, and Harvest Method Drive Recovery in an Indigenous Kelp Fishery
Tags: resilience, habitat management
Summary: This study examines the impact of plant size, seawater temperature, wave exposure, and grazers on the recovery of kelp (specifically Egregia) post-harvest. It finds that larger kelp plants recover more biomass, potentially due to increased photosynthetic capacity, and that seawater temperature significantly influences recovery, with cooler temperatures promoting growth. Wave exposure has a complex, non-linear effect on kelp production, while grazers paradoxically stimulate growth by pruning kelp, leading to new fronds. Indigenous harvesting practices, particularly size-selective harvesting, align with ecological findings, suggesting that these practices promote kelp resilience.
Implications: The study highlights how traditional ecological knowledge, co-produced with scientific data, can inform sustainable resource management and conservation efforts, emphasizing the importance of integrating diverse knowledge systems in managing socio-ecological systems.
Reference: Kobluk, H. (2018). Temperature, size, and harvest method drive recovery in an Indigenous kelp fishery [Thesis].
____________________________________________________________________
Ancient Anthropogenic Clam Gardens of the Northwest Coast Expand Clam Habitat
Bioregion: Quadra Island, BC, Canada; Salish Nations
Tags: regenerative cultivation, indigenous fisheries, habitat management
Summary: Researchers share that 35% of the coastline of Quadra Island, BC, Canada are lined with anthropogenic clam gardens. The system was dated to be at least 3,500 years old, and perhaps much older. These clam gardens were created with the construction of intertidal rock walls that create warmer, calmer pools on the shoreline side, perfect for clam habitat. Researchers measured a total of 15 km (9.3 miles) of rock wall, 209 distinct clam gardens and 112,978.9 m2 (about 28 acres) of clam garden area around Quadra Island. The cultural dimensions of this practice are outlined in a landmark study by Duer et al.
Implications: This article debunks the myth that Indigenous Peoples were passive gatherers of marine food species in the Pacific Northwest and show they were active in their cultivation of clam populations. It also shows an interesting mix of domestication and non-domestication of species. The technique of habitat expansion creates a home for species to live. This increases the amount of individuals available for harvest as in the context of a domesticated farm. At the same time, the movement and placement of species is governed completely by clam populations themselves, reminiscent of non-domesticated food systems. This teaches us that perhaps instead of farming, caging, corralling and controlling animals and plants to create a dependable supply of food, we could instead build a home for them and they will flourish of their own accord.
Reference: Lepofsky, D., Toniello, G., Earnshaw, J., Roberts, C., Wilson, L., Rowell, K., & Holmes, K. (2021). Ancient anthropogenic clam gardens of the northwest coast expand clam habitat. Ecosystems, 24(2), 248-260.
____________________________________________________________________
Native American Fisheries of the Northwestern California and Southwestern Oregon Coast: A Synthesis of Fish-Bone Data and Implications for Late Holocene Storage and Socio-Economic Organization
Bioregion: Humboldt Bay- Pacific Northwest; Southwestern Oregon: Tutuni, Takelma, Umpqua, and Chetco; Northwestern California: Tolowa,Yurok, Hupa, Karuk, Wiyot, Chilula, Mattole, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Bear River, Lassik, and Wailaki
Tags: indigenous fisheries
Summary: This paper examines the archaeology of fish and its mass-development during the Holocene period in the pacific northwest. The Indigenous tribes the paper examine are the Tutuni, Takelma, Umpqua, and Chetco of southwestern Oregon, and the Tolowa,Yurok, Hupa, Karuk, Wiyot, Chilula, Mattole, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Bear River, Lassik, and Wailaki of northwestern California. The paper suggests the presence of salmon was incredibly beneficial to the tribes of the pacific northwest. The authors of the study describe how salmon is a "relatively low-cost, high-ranking resource that had great potential for humans. For tribes, salmon runs are predictable, and people, once organized, can capture and store great quantities of fish, provisioning large numbers of people with a substantial supply of protein." In addition to farming salmon, the paper studies the harvesting of medium sized fish in rivers and coasts. To conduct their analysis, the paper studies 22 different fish types collected from the pacific northwest region near Humboldt Bay to determine the tribal impact upon fishing reserves. This paper examines the archaeology of fish and its mass-development in the pacific northwest and suggests the presence of salmonids, the paper studies the harvesting of medium sized fish in rivers and coasts. To conduct their analysis, the paper studies 22 different fish types collected from the pacific northwest region near Humboldt Bay to determine the tribal impact upon fishing reserves.
Implications: The implications of this study are significant for understanding the complexity of Indigenous fishing practices and the development of early coastal foraging systems. It challenges the traditional focus on salmon, proposing that other fish, such as smelt and small intertidal species, were also crucial to coastal diets. The evidence of mass-harvest techniques, sophisticated storage strategies, and the extensive use of resources like smelt demonstrates a level of socio-economic organization and resource management that dates back over 1,200 years. This research underscores the importance of refining archaeological methods, especially the application of finer screening techniques, to capture a fuller picture of fish exploitation in the region. Further study could reshape our understanding of ancient coastal subsistence strategies and the evolution of Indigenous fishing practices.
Reference: Tushingham, S. (2015). Native American fisheries of the northwestern California and southwestern Oregon coast: A synthesis of fish-bone data and implications for Late Holocene storage and socio-economic organization. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 189-215.
____________________________________________________________________
Sea Otters, Shellfish, and Humans: 10,000 Years of Ecological Interaction on San Miguel Island, California
Bioregion: Chumash, San Miguel Island, California; Mediterranean California
Tags: sustainable fisheries
Summary: Archaeology in the Channel Islands revealed that Chumash ancestors cultivated shellfish on San Miguel Island for at least 11,500 years, practiced intensive kelp bed fishing for at least 8,500 years, and hunted sea otters for at least 8,900 years. These species and habitats of the Channel Islands are now critically endangered after Chumash management was compromised and disenfranchised. The archaeological record indicates continuous, bountiful harvest in the ecosystem, as well as sustainable and productive management of a localized and delicate food web. In particular, the study analyzes the presence of abalone (a seafood mollusk), sea otters, and various species of fish within the archaeological record.
Implications: This indicates that Chumash Peoples and the predecessors were active in the management of the Channel Islands for at least 11,000 years. Sea otters predate on urchins and abalone. Urchins and abalone feed on kelp forests. Without sea otters, the urchins and abalone overgraze kelp forests and destroy them, known as urchin barrens. Native Nations were able to keep all these critical elements in balance for an astonishing time period and support these fragile kelp forest ecosystems. Contemporary Chanel Islands managers struggle to protect abalone fisheries today, which have nearly collapsed. This study proves there is a way to maintain the balance of all these variables. It points to the need to understand the nature of Chumash fishery principles, ethics, values, and goals in order to improve contemporary California shellfish fisheries while protecting sea otter populations.
Reference: Erlandson, J., Rick, T., & Estes, J. (2005). Sea otters, shellfish, and humans: 10,000 years of ecological interaction on San Miguel Island, California. Journal of Archaeological Science, 6, 58–68.
____________________________________________________________________
Holocene Settlement History of the Dundas Islands Archipelago, Northern British Columbia
Bioregion: Tsimshian, Dundas Islands, Northern BC
Tags: regenerative cultivation
Summary: Triangulating oral history of the Tsimshian and archeological methods, authors demonstrate the Dundas Islands were a particularly important region used to sustain life for more than 11,000 years. By conducting a detailed study of relative sea level change through the examination of radiocarbon dating, the authors were able to determine that the Prince Rupert Harbor was a “flagship” region for Holocene Era fishing society. Examining marine shells, the authors determined village size and interpreted the lived worlds of these ancient and resource-abundant civilizations.
Implications: This article extends our previous understanding of the timeframe of human civilization in the area, going back at least 11,000 years. It also shows that these ancient civilizations lived in a world of relative abundance, likely contributing to the development of the complex arts, sciences, linguistics, and astronomy we see in these cultures today. It proves that sustainable and abundant food systems were made possible in the area through effective management and sustained dense populations. Implementing the "Indigenous Standpoint Theory", this article utilizes the oral histories of the Tsimshian tribe to assist in their research methodologies.
Reference: Letham, B., Martindale, A., McLaren, D., Brown, T., Ames, K. M., Archer, D. J., & Marsden, S. (2015). Holocene settlement history of the Dundas islands archipelago, Northern British Columbia. BC Studies: The British Columbian Quarterly, (187).
____________________________________________________________________
Millennial-scale Sustainability of the Chesapeake Bay Native American Oyster Fishery
Bioregion: Chesapeake Bay, US
Tags: regenerative cultivation
Summary: This study reports that Indigenous Nations sustainably harvested oysters from the Chesapeake Bay for at least 3,500 years. Allometric analysis revealed that the oysters grew in size over the millennia, indicating that Piscataway harvest methods helped oyster communities thrive. Oysters are an integral part of lakes and oceans around the world. They improve water quality as living filters and provide food to humans and animals. Under colonial American mismanagement, significant overfishing and disease has reduced the famous Chesapeake oyster population to less than 1% of its original size, a collapse that is nearing the point of no return. The paper examines Native stewardship techniques and suggests them as viable practices for Chesapeake management today.
Implications: The authors intertwined conserving marine ecosystems with Indigenous stewardship practices. They made clear that, although the area is at a risk for overfishing, Native People have proven sustainable oyster harvesting is possible in the Bay. Moreover, the paper focused on how oysters play a historical role within Indigenous culture and the value of this connection and legacy.
Reference: Rick, Torben C., Leslie A. Reeder-Myers, Courtney A. Hofman, Denise Breitburg, Rowan Lockwood, Gregory Henkes, Lisa Kellogg et al. (2016). Millennial-scale sustainability of the Chesapeake Bay Native American oyster fishery. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(23),