EVs By the Numbers:
- In 2014, only a few thousand electric vehicles (EVs) were sold.
- In 2024, that number reached over 16 million.
- By 2035, electric vehicles (EVs) are expected to account for 95 percent of new car sales (IEA, 2025).
EVs are quickly gaining market share over their gas powered counterparts, but do the costs outweight the benefits of EVs?
The Environmental Cost Of Mining
- Mining lithium and other minerals for EVs has a significant impact to the environment and the ecosystems that surround it. (APM., 2024).
- A brine mixture is used to excavate the land to extract lithium. This brine requires a substantial amount of water, leading to depletion of the water reserve, erosion, groundwater contamination, and disturbances to local biodiversity.
- Despite the impacts of Lithium mining, a framework for responsibility, including community involvement, governance, and responsible mining efforts can be created
Most scientists believe, that ecological benefits of EVs overshadow the environmental impacts of mining. But is is important to drive responsible mining to minimize the environmental impacts. Significant gaps exist in regulations and governance of mining practices today.
EV emissions vs Gasoline Emissions Throughout the Life Cycle
Carbon Debt
- The term carbon debt refers to the higher emissions from EV manufacturing, especially the battery.
- According to Recurrent, citing EPA data: A gasoline car produces about 6 metric tons of CO₂ during manufacturing.
- Manufacturing an EV produces over 10 metric tons, resulting in a 4 metric ton carbon debt when compared to Internal combustion vehicles (Recurrent).
- Based on emissions savings, it takes about 1.2 years for an EV to “pay off” its carbon debt (MIT Climate Portal; Recurrent).
- After that point, EVs are net-positive for the environment. Cleaner energy will only shorten this payback period.
Emissions by Vehicle Type
- A Study by MIT found that even when EVs are charged with electricity from fossil fuels, they still have a lower carbon footprint than gas-powered cars (MIT Climate Portal).
- Using the national average of U.S. energy sources :
- EVs produce about 3,932 lbs. of CO₂ per year
- Plug-in hybrids produce 5,772 lbs.
- Hybrids produce 6,258 lbs.
- Gasoline vehicles produce 11,435 lbs. (MIT Climate Portal).
This means EVs emit roughly one-third the CO₂ of a typical gas car, even with the current energy mix. As the power grid transitions to cleaner sources, EVs will become even more sustainable, but is the environmental cost of lithium mining and the supply chain sustainable?
Lithium Sustainability and Emergining Technologies
Supply Chain / Sustainability
- Current EV battery technology requires large quantities of minerals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite.
- A major study projects demand by 2050 will increase by:
- 26 times for lithium
- 6 times for cobalt
- 12 times for nickle
This level of mineral consumption can lead to severe damage to ecosystems, deprive vulnerable communities of water, disrupt local livelihoods, and harm biodiversity (Kaunda and McCullough, 2022). The supply chain is not currently prepared to meet this level of demand. McKinsey reports that global lithium supply will fall short of battery demand by 2030 (APM Research Lab, 2024).
Emerging Technologies
- New battery types are being developed to reduce reliance on lithium.
- Zinc-Air Batteries (ZABs) are a promising option:
- Lighter, safer, and potentially cheaper than lithium-ion batteries.
- Do not rely on rare or volatile minerals.
- Researchers at Tohoku University extended the lifetime of ZABs, making them more commercially viable (Li et al., 2025).
Lithium mining and supply chains are not positioned to meet the growing demand for EVs. Rapid growth in mining would lead to companies cutting corners and not utilizing sustainable mining methods. New, emerging battery technologies are offering the promise that long-term replacement of lithium batteries is feasible. These would lead us to question whether now is the right time to drive the complete displacement of ICE vehicles in favor of EVs.
Pros
- EVs emit zero tailpipe emissions, which can result in a significant decrease in greenhouse gas emissions.
- EVs also run on electricity and not gasoline. By switching to electric power, we can lower our dependence on fossil fuels. Electricity is also a more clean and cheaper "fuel" option as compared to gasoline.
- As EVs have a more simplified electric motor compared to the internal combustion engine of gas-powered cars, there are less moving parts. With lesser parts within the vehicle, there is a lesser need for maintenance. With less maintenance and cheaper "fuel", owning EVs result in a lower operational cost as compared to owning a gas-powered vehicle.
Cons
- Lithium mining for EV car batteries pose great threats local water sources and human health. The lithium mining process can introduce heavy metal contaminants in nearby water sources. These contaminants are eventually consumed by humans who rely on these local water sources. Heavy metal contaminants can cause serious health problems once consumed. There are also reported cases in Salar de Uyuni and Salar de Atacama where their water sources were contaminated due to lithium mining.
- The disposal of these lithium-ion batteries is also harming our environment. Most EV batteries are disposed within landfills. This disposal method can lead to leaks into the ground, causing underground fires. And as the battery burns, the chemicals within the battery is mixed into the air we breath, leading to humans breathing in these toxins. Like consuming the contaminated water, breathing this air will also cause serious health problems to those around the fire.
- And as EV technology is still relatively new, much research and development is still to be done. Productions rates are also not at the same level of gas-powered cars. With new developments still being made and EVs not being as accessible as gas-powered cars, these factors result in EVs costing more upfront compared to gas-powered vehicles.
Connection To Course Work
To connect our research with class themes, we’re using a meme as a visual metaphor to show the trade-offs of electric vehicles. It compares a green oil pipeline with a large lithium mine and asks the question, are EVs truly sustainable?
The MEME showcases a common misconception that EVs are cleaner than gasoline vehicles because they don't produce tailpipe emissions. However, this view ignores the environmental cost of producing batteries and generating electricity. Mining materials like lithium, cobalt, and nickel causes significant pollution. In many cases, manufacturing an EV can result in more emissions than a gasoline vehicle.
Another overlooked issue is that EVs still rely on electricity, which often comes from fossil fuels, depending on the region. This means EVs can still be linked to high carbon emissions. The MEME encourages viewers to think critically about the environmental and especially the ethical impacts of EV production.
We picked this meme to get people thinking. EVs aren't perfect, and they’re not something we can switch to quickly. There are real trade-offs, and it's important to look at where the materials come from, how the cars are made, and what powers them. Sustainability is not simple. It depends on the choices we make at every step.
Conclusions
Currently Too Complex
- At this point in time, transitioning to EVs is more complex than just banning the use of gas-powered cars.
- EVs do offer environmental promises, but these promises and benefits come with its trade-offs.
- More research and developments by need to be done before we can deem EVs a viable alternative to gas-powered cars.
Environmental & Health Risks
- There are EV production factors that can lead to environmental and health risks.
- Lithium mining poses great threats to contaminating local water sources, leading to risking the health of those who consume the contaminated water.
- Without proper regulation, poor battery disposal can lead to underground fires and pollutants that can cause respiratory risks to those around the disposal site.
Economic Concerns
- EVs currently cost more upfront than gas-powered cars.
- Due to still being in developmental stages, money is being invested into newer and better production strategies.
- This results in higher production costs, and higher upfront costs to purchase an EV.
- Clean transportation should be affordable and assessable if we want to eventually transition to only EVs.
Call to Action
Switching to Zinc Air Batteries
- The dangers of lithium mining must be addressed before we can deem EVs and truly and fully sustainable.
- There has been promising research that Zinc Air Batteries are better than lithium-ion batteries.
- They have been seen to be more sustainable, had more benefits, and were more viable than lithium-ion batteries.
- With this switch, we can avoid lithium mining and reduce the risk of water contamination.
Taking Responsibility
- The EV industry should step up and ensure they are doing ethical practices.
- The industry can start by working with local governments and coming up with better battery disposal strategies to prevent possible leaks, fires, and further air pollution. As well as drive for sustainable mining practices.
Committing to Change
- The only way to make EVs fully sustainable is by committing to changing its current unsustainable and unethical practices.
- EVs have a lot of potential in thr battle against climate change.
- However, without committing to the mitigation of the environmental and health risks that come with EV production and disposal, EVs will never be fully sustainable,
- Commitment from the industry, engineers, and policymakers are essential if we want EVs to be the future.
Works Cited
APM Research Lab. “Lithium Mining for EVs: How Sustainable Is It?” APM Research Lab, in collaboration with Ten Across (Arizona State Univ.), 22 Feb. 2024, www.apmresearchlab.org/10x/lithium-mining-for-evs-sustainability.
BloombergNEF. Battery Supply Chains 2024. Bloomberg New Energy Finance, 2024, www.bnef.com/reports/battery-supply-chains-2024.
City of Moreno Valley. “MVU: Advantages of Electric Vehicles.” City of Moreno Valley, www.moval.org/mvu/ev-advantages.html.
Das, Pabitra Kumar, Mohammad Younus Bhat, and Shambhu Sajith. “Life Cycle Assessment of Electric Vehicles: A Systematic Review of Literature.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2023, doi:10.1007/s11356-023-30999-3.
Domonoske, Camila. “Their Batteries Hurt the Environment, but EVs Still Beat Gas Cars. Here’s Why.” NPR, 9 May 2024, www.npr.org/2024/05/09/1250212212/ev-batteries-environmental-impact.
EPA. “Electric Vehicle Myths.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, 23 Jan. 2025, www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/electric-vehicle-myths.
Feng, Ruiqi, et al. “Comparative Study on Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicle Batteries from a Regional and Energy Perspective.” Batteries, vol. 11, no. 1, 2025, article 23, pp. 1–25, doi:10.3390/batteries11010023.
Forbes Technology Council. “Battery Technology Innovations: An Evolving Landscape.” Forbes, 14 June 2024, www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2024/06/14/battery-technology-innovations-an-evolving-landscape.
GreenCars. “The Future of EV Batteries.” GreenCars.com, www.greencars.com/greencars-101/the-future-of-ev-batteries. Accessed 12 June 2025.
International Energy Agency. “Electric Vehicles.” IEA, 2025, www.iea.org/energy-system/transport/electric-vehicles. Accessed June 13, 2025.
Interesting Engineering. “Dual‑Atom Innovation Keeps Zinc‑Air Batteries Alive for 3,600 Hours.” Interesting Engineering, 2025, www.interestingengineering.com/energy/dual-atom-innovation-keeps-zinc-air-batteries-alive-for-3600-hours.
Johns, Rebecca, et al. “Life Cycle Assessment of Battery Electric Vehicles.” International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, vol. 14, no. 5, 2023, pp. 42–57.
Kaunda, Rennie B., and Colin McCullough. “Environmental and Social Impacts of Lithium Mining for Electric Vehicle Batteries and Policy Considerations.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 19, no. 10, 2022, article 6394, doi:10.3390/ijerph19106394. PubMed Central, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9171403/.
Li, Tingting, et al. “A pH‑Dependent Microkinetic Modeling Guided Synthesis of Porous Dual‑Atom Catalysts for Efficient Oxygen Reduction in Zn–Air Batteries.” Energy & Environmental Science, vol. 18, 2025, pp. 4949–4961, doi:10.1039/D5EE00215J. ScienceDirect, pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/ee/d5ee00215j.
Lin, Mia, et al. “Imagine a Circular EV Battery Economy.” Nature Sustainability, 2023, doi:10.1038/s41893-023-01234-y.
MIT Climate Portal. “Are Electric Vehicles Definitely Better for the Climate than Gas-Powered Cars?” MIT Climate Portal, 13 Oct. 2022, climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/are-electric-vehicles-definitely-better-climate-gas-powered-cars.
Richter, Jessika Luth. “A Circular Economy Approach Is Needed for Electric Vehicles.” Nature Electronics, vol. 5, no. 1, 2022, pp. 5–7, doi:10.1038/s41928-021-00711-9.
Recurrent “Carbon Footprint Face-Off: A Full Picture of EVs vs. Gas Cars” MIT Climate Portal, 10 Jan. 2025, https://www.recurrentauto.com/research/just-how-dirty-is-your-ev
Mercedes-Benz. “Mercedes-Benz of Bloomfield Hills.” Mercedes-Benz of Bloomfield Hills, 2023, www.mbbloomfield.com/mercedes-benz-model-research/why-are-electric-cars-so-expensive/.
Zheng, March. “The Environmental Impacts of Lithium and Cobalt Mining.” Earth.org, 31 Mar. 2023, earth.org/lithium-and-cobalt-mining/.
Credits:
Created with images by pengzphoto - "Close up of the Hybrid car electric charger station with power supply plugged into an electric car being charged." • MaxSafaniuk - "Excavator on earthmoving, aerial view. Open pit mining. Backhoe dig ground in quarry. Excavator load dolomite in haul truck, mining ore, drone view. Heavy machinery on extracts rock or mineral." • Raka - "Electric car charging outdoors" • plysuikvv - "Key lithium mine supports renewable energy initiatives. Generative AI" • The Stock Photo Girl - "wall charger for ev car at home" • dominic - "Electric Vehicle Chassis Assembly Modern Factory Production Line" • Kate - "Gas pump nozzle in a hand refuelling a car at gas tank" • phonlamaiphoto - "Asian engineer with ev car battery cells module in laboratory" • David_Steele - "Greenbushes Lithium Mine"