The People
A brief timeline showcasing Indigenous history in the Virginia region.
Native People Near Germanna
By the early 1600s, people Indigenous to Virginia lived in three broad cultural groups based on language families: Algonquian, Iroquoian, and Siouan. Scholars know most about the Algonquian-speaking Natives of Tsenacomoco, who formed a paramount chiefdom in the Tidewater region. In contrast, less is known about the Siouan-speaking Manahoac, who lived in the Northern Piedmont and along the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Early English accounts described the Manahoac people as “very merry,” and they were understood to live in a number of small villages. The Manahoac, along with their cultural relatives the Monacan, were deeply tied to this land. Oral tradition from the Monacan Indian Nation holds that their ancestors have lived in the region for over 10,000 years, relying on its rivers, forests, and valleys for food, trade, and spiritual practices. The Manahoac were likely semi-nomadic, moving seasonally across a broad territory while maintaining strong social and cultural ties among various subgroups such as the Ontponea and Stegarake.
The Culpeper region shows strong archaeological evidence of long-term Indigenous presence. Archaeologists have unearthed artifacts like stone tools and ceramics, pointing to thriving Native life. A confederation of Siouan-speaking tribes remained in the Piedmont for generations, hunting, fishing, and building communities throughout the region, including along the Rapidan River near Germanna. One of the most notable pieces of evidence for Native life around the fort is Skinker’s Ford, a historic crossing just a few miles from the remains of Alexander Spotswood’s colonial settlement. At this site, two stone fish weirs (a V-shaped structure used to trap fish), one above the ford and one below, span the width of the river. These features are signs of sophisticated Indigenous engineering, used to funnel fish and provide a stable food source for the surrounding villages. With abundant wild game, freshwater springs, and fertile soil, the area would have supported repeated seasonal settlements for hundreds, if not thousands, of years.
When still in its natural state- dense with forest, steep cliffs, and open riverbanks- the Rapidan Valley would have been one of the most desirable sites for Native settlement in the region. Both sides of the river show signs of occupation, but the left bank, between the two traps, has been most studied. The right bank, being higher in elevation, may yet hold even more undiscovered features. Today, the land still carries the memory of the Indigenous peoples who knew it intimately, whose descendants continue to live in Virginia. Though the names and locations of many Siouan-speaking groups like the Manahoac have faded from mainstream histories, the archaeological record, oral tradition, and ongoing research help restore these stories to the landscape they shaped.
Life of Indigenous People Post- Colonization
In the decades following colonization, Indigenous communities in Virginia faced increasing pressure from land loss, forced assimilation, and discriminatory policies. By the late 1700s, only four tribes still held treaty lands, and the Commonwealth had largely abandoned its responsibilities under those treaties. Still, Virginia’s Native communities continued to govern themselves and preserve their cultures through their own councils, churches, and schools.
As early as 1711, tensions over colonial control were clear. Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood urged tribal leaders to send their sons to institutions like the Brafferton Indian School at the College of William & Mary and Fort Christanna, a school intended to "educate" Indigenous youth in colonial ways. Queen Ann of the Pamunkey strongly objected. She feared the children would be separated from their families and potentially sold into slavery. Her concerns were justified, and only after Spotswood agreed to reduce the annual tribute did she and her council consent to send three children, including her own son.
Despite legal protections in treaties, Native people in Virginia continued to face the threat of enslavement. Colonial laws were often vague or ignored, and the labor demands of the plantation economy made Indigenous people targets. Throughout the 1700s and early 1800s, Native families fought back through the courts against the illegal enslavement of Indigenous people. In key freedom suits like Robin v. Hardaway (1772), Hudgins v. Wrights (1806), and Cooks v. Ivy (1819), they successfully argued for freedom based on descent from Native women, citing a 1662 law that tied a child’s status to that of the mother.
By the 19th century, federal policies like the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the Dawes Act of 1887 further devastated Native communities across the country. These acts successfully removed Native people from their land to free land for white settlers. Although these policies were not enforced the same way in Virginia, they reflected the broader national efforts to remove Native people from their lands and break apart tribal identities.
In the 20th century, erasure came through paperwork. Virginia’s 1924 Racial Integrity Act, promoted by eugenicist Walter Plecker, required that every person be classified as either “white” or “colored.” Plecker used this law to systematically reclassify Indigenous people, erasing Native identity from birth, marriage, and death records- a form of bureaucratic violence now referred to as “paper genocide.” This legacy still affects many families today who struggle to trace their ancestry needed for tribal recognition.
Despite these obstacles, Virginia tribes persisted. Seven have now gained federal recognition. Still, the process demands that Native communities "prove" their identity. As Monacan tribal member Sally Latimer said, “we’re one of the only groups of people... that has to prove who we are.” Chief Adams of the Upper Mattaponi added, “recognition... should come with just being here.” For Chief Branham of the Monacan Nation, federal recognition was about honoring his parents and grandparents, not proving his own identity: “I didn’t need it for me... but I wanted it so they could be proud of who they were.”
The Places
Spotswood’s Expansion: Fort Christanna & Fort Germanna
In 1714, Lt. Gov. Alexander Spotswood brought German settlers to Virginia and placed them in a five-sided fort called Germanna, about 20 miles west of modern day Fredericksburg. Spotswood focused on iron mining by 1717 and brought in a second group of Germans, many of whom had expected to settle in Pennsylvania. The first group later moved to present-day Fauquier County, and Spotswood replaced the fort with his personal residence, the “Enchanted Castle.” Germanna also served as the first county seat for Spotsylvania County and the launch site of Spotswood’s 1716 expedition over the Blue Ridge Mountains.
The same year Spotswood established Fort Germanna, he ordered the construction of Fort Christanna on the western frontier in 1714 , within land set aside for the Saponie and Occaneechee tribes. The fort included an Indian school, where up to 100 students were taught English and Anglican religion by schoolmaster Charles Griffin, whose salary Spotswood paid himself. The school aimed to promote assimilation and reduce conflict, but lost support by 1717 and closed. Despite this, the school left a lasting impact, introducing new languages, religion, and trade goods, while contributing to the erosion of traditional ways. Some modern tribes in Virginia and North Carolina trace their ancestry to those students.
Around 1720, Lt. Governor Alexander Spotswood dismantled the original 1714 Fort Germanna to build a grand residence at the center of his expanding estate, which included plantations, ironworks, forests, and river shipping operations. Built with brick, sandstone, and slate, the house stood out for its elegant Georgian style, especially so far west on Virginia’s frontier. A small town formed around it, and from 1721 to 1732, Germanna served as the first county seat of Spotsylvania. When William Byrd II visited in 1732, he famously dubbed the home the “Enchanted Castle," a name that stuck.
Their Stories
The history of Germanna is far richer and more complex than many traditional narratives suggest. Throughout this site, we’ve worked to highlight stories that are too often overlooked, like those of Katina and Sawney, reminding us of the many Indigenous lives that shaped this region. Yet, the written record remains incomplete. Historical documents often reflect colonial perspectives, prioritizing the voices of settlers and those in power while silencing or distorting Native stories.
"Their Stories" is an effort to center those who have been left out. Through preservation, archaeology, and a commitment to inclusive public history, we seek to recover and share the experiences of Indigenous people connected to Germanna before, during, and after colonization. These narratives are essential to understanding the full scope of Germanna’s past.
Katina
Katina, an Indigenous woman, is listed in Alexander Spotswood’s probate inventory under the heading "Negroes" among other enslaved individuals as property. She was noted as a servant at his Germanna estate, known as the "Enchanted Castle." Her presence highlights the often-overlooked role of Native people in early colonial households. Though little is known about her life, Katina's inclusion in official records reflects how Indigenous individuals were drawn into systems of servitude during Virginia’s colonial expansion. It is possible that Katina was introduced to Spotswood because of Fort Christanna.
A likely reference to Katina during her time at Germanna comes from William Byrd, who wrote that upon his departure from Spotswood’s home, he “gave Mr. Russel the trouble of distributing a pistole among the servants, of which I fancy the nurse had a pretty good share, being no small favourite”. Given later accounts, it is thought that Katina may have been the nurse to Spotswood’s four children with his wife, Butler Brayne. Much of what is known about her thereafter survives through the Thornton family oral history, where stories of Katina became woven into the larger narrative of Fall Hill. By the late nineteenth century, these accounts, such as tales of her taking care of the children and family were already appearing in print. They also speak of the deep affection Francis, one of the children she raised, held for her and his grief at her death during his adolescence.
While accounts of her burial site vary, they consistently describe a small stone marker in a garden near a stream or surrounded by tall oaks. Over time, a degree of legend grew around her, with later writers associating her with poems, Civil War lore, and ultimately ghost stories tied to Fall Hill (even though the current house dates to around 1790, after her lifetime). Though these tales often obscure more than they reveal, they have nevertheless kept Katina’s name and memory in circulation, offering rare glimpses into the life of an Indigenous woman whose presence shaped the families and landscapes around her. Her story is a reminder that the legacy of Germanna includes not only wealth and power but also the lives of those who labored behind the scenes.
Katina’s presence across these generations reflects how Indigenous women were often moved between households as part of elite family networks- expected to provide stability, care, and labor with little recognition. While we can only speculate about the specifics of her life, the fact that her name appears in historical records speaks to her importance in the daily workings of some of Virginia’s most prominent families.
Even today, Katina’s presence lingers. Local ghost stories have emerged over time that mention an “Indian servant woman” haunting Fall Hill. These tales, while unfounded, reveal how deeply rooted her memory is in the legacy of the families she served. They suggest that, despite the silence in the written record, Katina left an impression that endures, one that invites us to look closer at the lives of those whose stories were often left untold.
Sawney
Sawney, a Saponi man, appeared at Germanna in August 1724 under circumstances that quickly drew the attention of local authorities. According to the Spotsylvania County Order Book, he caused a disturbance after drinking at a nearby tavern, attempted to assault several people, and loudly criticized colonial officials. Witnesses claimed he tried to force his way into Spotswood’s Enchanted Castle, allegedly in pursuit of Katina, and at one point stood shouting from atop a cannon before being driven off by another servant. While such behavior might normally have resulted in a brief jailing, one particular remark he made alarmed the magistrates enough to send him to trial before the General Court in Williamsburg.
The court’s concern stemmed from knowledge of Sawney’s recent past. The depositions identify him as a “Sapony Indian…taken prisoner by the Canada Indians about two years ago and delivered to Col. Burnett Governor of New York whose pass he has.” As additional records suggest, Sawney’s capture likely occurred near Fort Christanna, where he had been a servant of Spotswood. Documents relating to the Treaty of Albany describe an unnamed Saponi prisoner taken by a Mohawk raiding party in 1722 and carried toward Kahnawake. These records align closely with Sawney’s story: the Mohawk were intercepted at Fort Hunter, the Commissioners of Indian Affairs attempted to secure the prisoner’s release at Spotswood’s request, and although freed as a gesture of goodwill, the prisoner chose to follow his captors to Canada. By early 1723 he had even been made a sachem at Kahnawake. Despite the diplomatic risks, colonial officials remained determined to retrieve him, and in July 1724- almost two years after his capture- he and another Virginian captive were finally sent south from Albany.
If this unnamed prisoner was Sawney, his return to Virginia in August 1724 would explain both his presence at Germanna and the alarm his statements caused. At his trial in Williamsburg, Sawney acknowledged his captivity among the “French Indians” and participation in raids on New England. The court questioned whether he carried any message from the Haudenosaunee to the Saponi or intended to return to Canada. Fearing he might attempt to forge alliances or encourage unrest, the judges concluded that his behavior gave “just cause of suspicion.” Sawney was ordered held unless leaders of the Saponi could guarantee his good conduct. A month later, after further examination, the court found no evidence of a planned attack, and he was released into the custody of Colonel Nathaniel Harrison.
Like Katina’s story, Sawney’s is marked by silences. The surviving documentation reflects only the statements of colonial officials and observers; Sawney’s own voice was not preserved. Yet the very fact that his actions, movements, and connections were recorded speaks to his significance in a region where Native lives were often noted only when viewed as a threat. Even through this fragmented lens, his story reveals the complex, often strained entanglements between Indigenous people and colonial authorities at Germanna during this period.
Fig. 7. Spotsylvania County Order Book 1724-1730; September 1, 1724
Native People Today
Native communities in Virginia’s Tidewater and Piedmont regions are vibrant and active today. While some groups, such as the Manahoac and Tutelo, are no longer present as distinct tribes, their stories remain part of Virginia’s history. Across the state, 11 tribes are officially recognized- 7 of them also by the federal government- showing that Native heritage in Virginia is very much alive and visible. Indigenous people have shown resilience for thousands of years, adapting to change while also enduring the hardships of colonization. Today, Virginia’s tribes honor that strength through Powwows, cultural programs, community gatherings, and ongoing efforts to preserve traditions and restore connections to their ancestral lands.
Click the links below to learn more about Native Tribes in Virginia and Piedmont Region
Virginia State Recognized Tribes
Occaneechi Band of Saponi Indians
Nottoway Indian Tribe of Virginia
Hearing Indigenous Voices
Before colonization, Indigenous communities had their own systems for keeping and sharing knowledge, ensuring information was passed down for generations. When settlers arrived and written records became controlled by colonial governments, Indigenous voices were often left out or misrepresented in those accounts. To keep their stories alive, many communities turned to what had always been central to their culture: oral history and storytelling. These traditions remain a powerful way of preserving and sharing history across generations.
Historic Germanna has gathered oral history interviews with members of tribes connected to this region. These voices offer their perspectives on Fort Germanna and on Alexander Spotswood’s influence on the social and cultural lives of Indigenous people in the 18th century. What follows is the beginning of an ongoing effort to center and uplift Indigenous voices in telling this history.
Oral History Sessions
Interview #1: Lisa Richardson
Lisa is a member of the Rappahannock Tribe, passionate about language revitalization. In this interview, she discusses the importance of Indigenous resilience and its ability to strengthen Indigenous people to continue to survive.
Listen to the first part of Lisa's story here.
"We have a story that goes back hundreds of years about our canoe dance."
Lisa connects the Rappahannock people to the Powhatan-Algonquian language and other nearby tribes that share similar culture and language. She describes a canoe dance traditional story told through a Powwow dance, connecting the Nanzatico tribe to her own.
"We had an intricate system of governance of land, humans, and goods prior to European arrival."
Lisa puts early settler intentions into context, noting their bias against Native life despite its long-standing success before colonization. She explains that “Governor Spotswood was trying to create something very Eurocentric to create security for the settlers in a different land with different political power and supply structures.”
Continue listening to Lisa's story here.
"Indigenous people pride ourselves in our sense of humor. It's part of our resilience story, and it's part of why we're still here."
This concept of Eurocentric organization is discussed in the following clip as Lisa explains how Spotswood simultaneously recognized Native people as separate nations, yet administratively grouped all Virginia and Carolina tribes together for land management. Under this pressure, the Native people developed their own method of communication- a shared dialect of survival.
Lisa mentions that the pressure to survive meant losing language and traditions that are still grieved over today. "In 2025, we’re working on revitalizing our language...For me, that feels like the reversal of that process." Throughout this revitalization, Lisa is focusing on rebuilding identity, finding wholeness, and passing it to her children, to show that though loss and grief are present in their culture, their resilience reminds them to stand strong in their future.
Hear from Lisa one last time here.
Interview #2: Dr. Ashley Spivey
Dr. Ashley is a citizen of the Pamunkey Indian Tribe, connected to Indigenous history of Virginia through her dedication to anthropology. In this interview, she discusses the importance of understanding Historic Germanna's connection to the Indigenous community.
Listen to Ashley's story here.
"When I'm asked about Spotswood's relationship to my tribe, it's that official government-to-government relationship, and part of that relationship that stands out to me is negotiation."
Ashley highlights the complex diplomacy between the Pamunkey and Governor Spotswood, showing how colonial education policy became a tool for reshaping Native communities. She explains that Spotswood leveraged treaty obligations and promises of safety to persuade Pamunkey leaders to send their sons to the Brafferton School, revealing both the pressures of colonial assimilation and the careful negotiations Indigenous leaders undertook to protect their children and sovereignty.
"The Katina connection and the Sawney connection are extremely important in providing a snapshot for how Indigenous people were interacting in colonial systems at that time."
In this clip, Ashley explains that while her community does not hold specific oral histories about Katina or Sawney, their presence in the historical record is deeply significant. She notes that these individuals offer a rare snapshot of how Indigenous people were drawn into colonial systems, including the largely unrecognized history of Indigenous enslavement. Ashley outlines how European powers captured, traded, and sold Native people across the East Coast, reminding listeners that this experience shaped many tribal communities in Virginia.
Here is the second part of Ashley's story.
"We're here to shed light on the historical experiences of our ancestors, and this is one of those experiences."
Ashley emphasizes that acknowledging this history is both sensitive and necessary. She urges Historic Germanna to approach it with care and in partnership with tribal nations, stressing that discomfort from the public should not prevent the truth from being told. For her, bringing this history forward honors the experiences of their ancestors and creates an important opportunity for Germanna to illuminate a part of colonial history that is too often overlooked.
This work is ongoing. Research continues, and we welcome collaboration, insights, and corrections as we strive to tell these stories with care and accuracy.
This page was created by Rachel Meadows, Historic Germanna Indigenous History Research Assistant and enrolled citizen of the Rappahannock Tribe, funded generously by the Virginia Black, Indigenous, and People of Color Historic Preservation Grant Program.