American soldiers at the siege of Yorktown, by Jean-Baptiste-Antoine DeVerger, watercolor, 1781
African Americans fought on both sides of the American Revolution hoping to win their freedom from enslavement.
In November 1775, the British began actively recruiting Black men from America. Lord Dunmore's Official Proclamation promised freedom to enslaved black soldiers in Virginia who chose to serve in His Majesty's army.
"I do hereby further declare all indented Servants, Negroes, or others, (appertaining to Rebels,) free, that are able and willing to bear arms, they joining His Majesty's Troops." Lord Dunmore
Lord Dunmore Proclamation, November 7, 1775
On the other hand, initially the Continental army was not as welcoming to the enlistment of American Black men, free or enslaved. For instance Adjunct General of the Continental Army, Horatio Gates, in July 1775 issued an order to recruiters.
"You are not to Enlist any Deserters from the Ministerial Army, nor any Stroller, Negro or Vagabond...as the Cause is the best that can engage Men of Courage and Principle to take up Arms" Horatio Gates
In November of 1775, Washington barred the enlistment of free Blacks and slaves. In January of 1776, however, Washington reversed this decision indicating that free Black Waggoners might be employed, but that "slaves could not be sufficiently depended on."
Individual states like Rhode Island, struggling to meet enlistment quotas, allowed the recruitment of indentured servants, indigenous peoples, and former slaves to join its first integrated unit, the 1st Rhode Island Regiment in February 1778.
In 1779, Sir Henry Clinton issued the Philipsburg Proclamation which guaranteed that all enslaved people, regardless of age or gender would be accepted at British lines causing an increase in the number of enslaved African Americans who joined the British.
"and I do promise to every Negroe who shall desert the Rebel Standard, full security to follow within the lines, any occupation which he shall think proper."
Most of those Black men recruited by the British forces were not given arms. For instance, Hessian troop records show that 131 African Americans enlisted and served some period of the war: 94 as drummers, 4 as pipers, 25 as laborers, 1 in the provost marshal’s department, 1 as a grenadier, 1 as a musketeer, and only 3 as privates.
Source: Uniforms for the 1st Hessian Guards Infantry Regiment, c. 1780. Kassel, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen. Repinted in Peter Martin, Schwarze Teufel, edle Mohren. Hamburg: Junius Verlag, 1993, p. 344, Fig. 19.
It is believed over the course of the war some 20,000 black Americans fled to the British with its promises of freedom for service. The below sampling of Pennsylvania newspapers from 1776-1778 tell the tale of Cato, Tony and Caesar, three black enslaved Pennsylvania men who left their "owners" to flee to the British lines, as well as the story of an enslaved man who was ordered to help in the recovery of other enslaved men who had escaped aboard a British Privateer Vessel.
Comparatively only 3000-5000 joined the Continental Army. A tally of the Black men in the Continental Army dated August 24, 1778 shows 755 Black men in 14 infantry brigades. None were allowed to serve in positions of rank with the exception as Drummer or Fifer, and many served as laborers.
Pennsylvania's BLack Soldiers
Of the Pennsylvania Brigades, Anthony Wayne's (1st, 2nd, 7th and 10th with a combined enlistment of 1363 men) had only 2 black men. The second Pennsylvania Brigade made up of the 3rd, 5th, 6th and 9th regiments totaled 1117 men and 35 Black men. There is no record of the Pennsylvania 4th and 8th regiments.
Black Soldiers of the Pennsylvania Continental Army
Pitt Adams, Negroe Bob, John Bristol, Levi Burns, Caesar, Cezar, Sebastian Day, James Forten, John Francis, Cato Freeman, Edward Hector, John “the negro”, John Leoman, William Lukens, Abraham Moore, Peter Negro, Orange, Polydore Redman, Francis Pomenay, Ferdinand Ponsley, Isaac Walker, Cuff Warner and Stacey Williams
from John Rees's Book, They Were Good Soldiers
James Forten
The most well known of the Pennsylvanian Black men to serve in the Revolutionary war was James Forten. A free Black man, he enlisted to serve on the privateer Royal Louis, commanded by Captain Stephen Decatur Sr when he was 14 years old. The Royal Louis was captured by a Royal Navy warship and the prisoners imprisoned aboard the HMS Jersey in Wallabout Bay. Forten was released on parole after 7 months giving a promise not to fight in the war.
The British Captain, John Beazley, reportedly offered Forten an opportunity to be educated in Great Britain rather than be a prisoner of war, but Forten replied, "I have been taken prisoner for the liberties of my country, and never will prove a traitor to her interest."
Watercolor of abolitionist James Forten (1766-1842) believed to have been painted during his lifetime. The image comes from The Historical Society of Pennsylvania
Forten's accounts indicated that once paroled he walked from Brooklyn to Philadelphia to return to his family. He signed up on a merchant ship, which sailed to England. He lived and worked there for more than a year in a London shipyard.
When Forten returned to Philadelphia in 1790, he became apprenticed to sail-maker Robert Bridges. Forten worked in the sail loft where the large ship sails were cut and sewn. Eventually, Forten was made foreman, and later in 1798, he bought the sail loft from the owner.
By 1810, Forten was running one of the most successful sail lofts in Philadelphia, and had become one of the wealthiest men in Philadelphia. Of note, he is known for a tool he developed to help maneuver the large sails, and for employing both black and white workers at his business.
"Negro Bob"
It is difficult to document the Pennsylvania Black men who served in the Army. Some were not listed in the muster rolls or were only listed by their first name, such as "Negro Bob" who according to the muster rolls, served as a Fifer. We do not know whether Bob was free or enslaved, nor do we know if he had family or where he lived in Philadelphia.
Muster Roll of Captain Semple's Company of the 4th Regiment of the Foot, Commanded by Lt. Col. Joseph Deans of the 7th Class, City Philadelphia and Districts Militia, State of Pennsylvania
Fifer and Drummers
Fifers and drummers, were important positions. They were crucial for troop communication, providing the direction to help regulate the working day. Their tunes were the signals used to tell the far-flung soldiers to wake up, eat meals, and perform camp chores.
Waiters, Servants, Batmen and Bowmen
Other Pennsylvania Black men enlisted and served as laborers also known as Waiters, Servants, Batmen or Bowmen. They were assigned to men of rank and it was their role to follow these men wherever they went and tend to the more mundane aspects of the war from chopping wood to digging latrines. The use of servants in the Continental ranks was regulated as follows:
- Lt. Colonel Major Two servants each One with Arms one without Arms
- Captain Subalterns Surgeon Mate each One Servant with Arms
- Cavalry Colonel Lt. Colonel Two servants without Arms
- Major General Four Servants
- Brigadier General Four Servants.
- Colonel Two Servants
- Lt. Colonel One Servant without Arms.
- Major One Servant
- Captains One Servant
- Aide de Camp One Servant
- Major of Brigade One Servant
William Lukens
William Lukens served as a waiter for Captain Stake’s company, in Colonel Michael Swope’s Pennsylvania Battalion of Flying Camp Militia. Mr. Lukens was noted as being enslaved by Charles Lukens, of Carlisle.
Battle of Fort Washington, November 16, 1776
William Lukens was one of Washington's 2,900 men who were sent to defend Fort Washington from a multi-directional British attack.
The Pennsylvania troops at Fort Washington included the Flying troop under Col. William Baxter as well as troops under Colonels Michael Swope, Frederick Watts, and William Montgomery.
After an intense battle the Continental Troops were forced to surrender and all those not killed in battle were taken prisoner, including William Lukens.
We know very little else about Mr. Lukens, though some local historical texts give him credit for informing Washington of the British and Hessians locations at Trenton before the attack.
POLYDORE REDMAN
Polydore Redman served as a drummer in the 5th Pennsylvania Regiment. The entire command, including Redman, was also captured at Fort Washington.
Battle of Brandywine-September 11, 1777
On September 11, 1777, in an attempt to prevent the British from capturing Philadelphia, General George Washington set his forces in positions along Brandywine Creek to block the fords. The British forces under Sir William Howe, with the help of Hessian forces as well as a heavy fog, broke through the Continental Army's right flank and overran Washington's men. Washington’s line collapsed, but the majority of men were able to escape toward the Northeast.
Five Black Pennsylvania soldiers took part in the Battle of Brandywine, some as soldiers and others as laborers. Two were wounded (one so badly that he would not fight again), and another was recognized for his bravery on the field.
Levi Burns
Levi Burns was listed as a waiter in the Regiment Roll of Lieutenant Colonel Hartley's Company, Tenth Infantry, Pennsylvania Regiment, commanded by Colonel Richard Humpton, September 10, 1978
John Francis
John Francis served in Epple's Company, 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment. Both his legs were shattered by grapeshot at the Battle of Brandywine. The journal of a fellow soldier shared that Francis was "wounded and taken prisoner at Brandiwine...with one of his legs (both of which were wounded) being shattered and little hopes of recovering so as to be fit for Military duty." This entitled him to receive a pension of three dollars a month for one year.
United States, Rosters of Revolutionary War Soldiers and Sailors, 1775-1966", , FamilySearch (https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:QG29-H7BK : Sun Mar 10 22:38:52 UTC 2024), Entry for John Francis, 17 August 1777.
Stacey Williams
Stacey Williams enlisted as a private in April 15, 1777 in Jacob Humphrey's Company, 6th Pennsylvania Regiment under Colonel Magaw. He survived the war but died in Philadelphia, September 21, 1820 age 76.
Williams was wounded in the thigh at the Battle of Brandywine fighting at or near Birmingham Hill on the American left.
Edward "Ned" Hector
Edward "Ned" Hector was a wagon driver in Courtney's Company of the 4th Continental Artillery at Brandywine. His obituary shares the story of his brave actions on the field when the company was given the order to retreat, Ned declared on the field "The Enemy shall not have my team. I will save my horses or perish myself." Then he gathered what arms he could, placed them in his wagon and safely escaped.
Battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777
Following the American defeat at the Battle of Brandywine, the British Army captured Philadelphia. and British General, Sir William Howe positioned two brigades of 9,000 men in Germantown.
George Washington, commanding an army of 8,000 Continentals and 3,000 militiamen, staged a surprise attack on the British troops at Germantown.
Washington divided his army so as to attack the British from multiple directions at dawn, October 4, 1777. The Pennsylvania troops under Anthony Wayne and including Ned Hector were directed to attack the British at the Chew House.
Now acting as a bombardier, Ned Hector manned one of the three rear positions of one of four cannons.
During the battle he was in charge of moving the gunpowder and ammunition and if needed in pulling the cannon behind his wagon for positioning.
Painting of the Battle of Germantown, by an unknown British artist, c. 1780-1800
Unfortunately for Washington, darkness and a heavy fog delayed this advance and cost him the element of surprise. While 500 British were killed, wounded or captured in the battle, double that number of Americans were killed, wounded or captured in the battle. Fifty Americans were killed attacking the Chew House. Ned survived and, later in life, was recognized for his bravery at Brandywine and Germantown with a $40 reward for service rendered.
Bucks County Black Soldiers
There are few records tallying the number of Black residents either free or enslaved in the County of Bucks prior to 1782. In that year, as part of the Pennsylvania Abolition Act, it was required that all enslaved people be registered. Bucks County records show that there were 530 enslaved peoples in the County at that time. It was also required that manumission papers be drawn up for any enslaved person who was freed.
There were a number of Free Blacks, living in the county during the War, but documentation is scarce. However, information about some early free black communities has been recorded. One such community was created following the death of Jeremiah Langhorne, who upon his death freed his enslaved peoples and gave them life rights to his land. This community, in Middletown, was known first as Four Lane End and later Washington Village.
Even as the leaders of the Bucks County Committee for Saftey were trying to fight for Patriotic freedom, the majority of them were slaveholders. Both John Kidd and Henry Wynkoop were documented as each owning 10 enslaved peoples in 1782.
At the age of 17, Joseph Kirkbride, inherited his family farm and ferry business in Falls Township as well as its enslaved laborers. He was chosen to serve on the Bucks County Committee of Safety and as a a Colonel of the First Battalion. And yet in April of 1775 he placed an ad for the return of an escaped young Black man, Andrew aged 17, who had fled his estate. The ad warned any vessels of persons aiding the boy to do so, "at their Peril."
As late as 1783, one year after the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania passed its Gradual Abolition of Slavery Act, Bucks County Committee of Safety leader, Joseph Hart was advertising for the return of his enslaved man, Cuff aged 23 years of age.
We have no specific record of any black man or woman, free or enslaved, joining either the Continental or the British armies during the American War of Independence, but there was at least one instance of an enslaved Bucks County Black man speaking out against the patriotic cause.
In the minutes of the Bucks County Committee of Safety Meeting on July 9, 1776 a complaint was recorded, "that a Negro of Jeremiah Dungan, Jr. had said he would burn the houses and kill the Women and children of the Associators when they marched out. Dungan entered into a bond of 100 pounds, for the good behavior of said Negro, Samson, which is considered satisfactory until the return of the militia." Jeremiah might have been in sympathy with Samson as he was listed as a non-associator in Northampton Township as early as 1775.
This blog is in recognition of all the Black soldiers who fought during the American War of Independence, both for the British and for the Patriots, and to the 5,000 African Americans who died during the Revolutionary War.