Introduction
The following citations give the reader an introduction to the scale, productivity, efficiency, sustainability, and innovation of various Indigenous regenerative food and land management systems. Demographic studies have long shown that Native peoples densely populated the land. For example, we estimate that in ancient Hawaii there were actually more people living there than there are today. Those ancient Hawaiians produced 100% of their foods locally. Today, nearly 90% of all foods in Hawaii are imported. This is one of many examples elucidating that precolonial food systems were efficient and able to support dense populations. With this brief introduction of articles (some of which reappear in their proper categories in other parts of the bibliography) we hope to give the reader a first insight into the depth and breadth of Indigenous regenerative land and food tenure systems.
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Native Americans as active and passive promoters of mast and fruit trees in the eastern USA
Bioregion: Eastern USA
Tags: pyrogenic stewardship, land use, agroecology, agroforestry
Summary: Researchers offer a multidisciplinary review of historical ecology studies, outlining the ways in which Indigenous Peoples shaped eastern forests into a breadbasket in pre-Columbian times. With special focus on oak, hickory, chestnut, walnut and various fruit trees, authors show how Indigenous peoples extensively managed eastern forests. They focus on how these Nations used fire and girdling as management tools to not only thin forests to promote healthy harvests, but also to create grassland understories, providing edible habitats for deer, elk, and other herbivores resulting in easy hunts. Authors also systematically refute arguments that the fire regime was caused by natural lightning ignitions and show that Indigenous Peoples were responsible for the fire pattern that occurred over millennia as a management strategy. It provides a wide variety of citations for further research as well.
Implications: This study clearly shows that Indigenous Peoples shaped Eastern forest composition with profound influence for at least ten thousand years. It debunks the myth that these lands were sparsely populated as well as the myth that Indigenous Peoples of this area did not intentionally cultivate the land. It reframes Indigenous Peoples as highly active and participatory managers of complex ecosystems. Popular culture often pigeon-holes Indigenous Peoples of the area as “hunter-gatherers”, passively harvesting what food they can find, rather than intentional agents of change that tended and transformed the world around them to augment life for their communities and that of other biota.
Reference: Abrams, M. D., & Nowacki, G. J. (2008). Native Americans as active and passive promoters of mast and fruit trees in the eastern USA. The Holocene, 18(7), 1123-1137.
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Ancient Anthropogenic Clam Gardens of the Northwest Coast Expand Clam Habitat
Bioregion: Pacific Northwest
Tags: anthropogenic ecosystems, ecomimicry, biomimicry, fisheries
Summary: Researchers share that 35% of the coastline of Quadra Island, BC, Canada are lined with anthropogenic clam gardens. The system was dated to be at least 3,500 years old, and perhaps much older. These clam gardens were created with the construction of intertidal rock walls that create warmer, calmer pools on the shoreline side, perfect for clam habitat. Researchers measured a total of 15 km (9.3 miles) of rock wall, 209 distinct clam gardens and 112,978.9 m2 (about 28 acres) of clam garden area around Quadra Island. The cultrual dimensions of this practice are outlined in a landmark study by Duer et al.
Implications: This article debunks the myth that Indigenous Peoples were passive gatherers of marine food species in the Pacific Northwest and show they were active in their cultivation of clam populations. It also shows an interesting mix of domestication and non-domestication of species. The technique of habitat expansion creates a home for species to live. This increases the amount of individuals available for harvest as in the context of a domesticated farm. At the same time, the movement and placement of species is governed completely by clam populations themselves, reminiscent of non-domesticated food systems. This teaches us that perhaps instead of farming, caging, corralling and controlling animals and plants to create a dependable supply of food, we could instead build a home for them and they will flourish of their own accord.
Reference: Lepofsky, D., Toniello, G., Earnshaw, J., Roberts, C., Wilson, L., Rowell, K., & Holmes, K. (2021). Ancient anthropogenic clam gardens of the northwest coast expand clam habitat. Ecosystems, 24(2), 248-260.
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The legacy of 4,500 years of polyculture agroforestry in the eastern Amazon
Bioregion: Eastern Amazon River Basi
Tags: land use, Indigenous forestry, terra preta, agroecology
Summary: Authors assess historical data on three phases going back to 8,500 years ago. They argue that Indigenous civilizations began practicing polyculture, hunting, and fishing around 4500 years ago with maize and sweet potato arriving at that time. Edible plants, pyrogenic stewardship, and Amazonian Dark Earths (human-assisted soil systems) increased after 2,500 years ago. The data indicate that Indigenous communities managed land in mosaics of succession and did not advance large crop-clearing. Their practises increased edible plants on Amazonian Dark Earth soils, which could explain the current hyperdominance of edible species. The article stresses the scale of positive human influence in the Amazon River Basin.
Implications: The authors found that Indigenous people have been practicing sustainable polyculture for thousands of years, which probably impacted current vegetation composition. Their work is important because it shows how Indigenous people in the Amazon have shaped and lived in harmony with their environment without destroying it, indicating we can do the same in this era of human civilization as well. As interest increases within Western science to study sustainable agroecological systems, it is essential that we recognize the long standing success of the sustainable land management practices of Indigenous Peoples.
Reference: Maezumi, S.Y., Alves, D., Robinson, M., de Souza, J.G., Levis, C., Barnett, R.L., Almeida de Oliveira,E., Urrego, D., Schaan, D., Iriate, J. (2018).The legacy of 4,500 years of polyculture agroforestry in the eastern Amazon. Nature Plants 4, 540–547.
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Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of California's Natural Resources
Bioregion: California, USA
Tags: Indigenous agroforestry, Indigenous land management, pyrogenic stewardship, traditional ecological knowledge
Summary: The author of this large volume presents a wealth of information on Native land management of California. Some of this is gleaned from interviews with Indigenous People regarding how and when areas are burned, which plants are eaten and which are used for basketry, and how plants were tended. The complex picture that emerges from this and other historical source material dispels the hunter-gatherer stereotype long perpetuated in anthropological and historical literature. We come to see California's Indigenous Nations as active agents of environmental change and stewardship. Tending the Wild persuasively argues that this traditional ecological knowledge is essential if we are to successfully meet the challenge of living sustainably.
Implications: This book dispels the notion of California Native people as "hunter-gatherers” and reframes them more accurately as gardeners and sculptors of vast tracts of land. It highlights the importance of the routine burning of california ecosystems and how they became pyro-adapted. This indicates that California's wildfires are not simply a function of climate change, but concurrently a function of the prohibition of Indigenous fires throughout the region in 17th-21st centuries.
Reference: Anderson, K. (2005). Tending the wild: Native American knowledge and the management of California's natural resources. Univ of California Press.
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Millennial-scale Sustainability of the Chesapeake Bay Native American Oyster Fishery
Bioregion: Chesapeake Bay, USA
Tags: oysters, fisheries, Piscataway, Chesapeake Bay, sustainable harvest
Summary: This study reports that Indigenous Nations sustainably harvested oysters from the Chesapeake Bay for at least 3,500 years. Allometric analysis revealed that the oysters grew in size over the millennia, indicating that Piscataway harvest methods helped oyster communities thrive. Oysters are an integral part of lakes and oceans around the world. They improve water quality as living filters and provide food to humans and animals. Under colonial American mismanagement, significant overfishing and disease has reduced the famous Chesapeake oyster population to less than 1% of its original size, a collapse that is nearing the point of no return. The paper examines Native stewardship techniques and suggests them as viable practices for Chesapeake management today.
Implications: The authors intertwined conserving marine ecosystems with Indigenous stewardship practices. They made clear that, although the area is at a risk for overfishing, Native People have proven sustainable oyster harvesting is possible in the Bay. Moreover, the paper focused on how oysters play a historical role within Indigenous culture and the value of this connection and legacy.
Reference: Rick, Torben C., Leslie A. Reeder-Myers, Courtney A. Hofman, Denise Breitburg, Rowan Lockwood, Gregory Henkes, Lisa Kellogg et al. (2016). Millennial-scale sustainability of the Chesapeake Bay Native American oyster fishery. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(23).
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Niche construction and Dreaming logic: Aboriginal patch mosaic burning and varanid lizards (Varanus gouldii) in Australia
Bioregion: Western Australia
Tags: pyrogenic stewardship, Dreamtime, Martu, desert ecosystems, ecosystem engineering
Summary: This study works with the Martu Indigenous Nation of Australia and reviews their land management strategies, which center around prescribed burns in their desert homeland. Mosaic burning is recognized as an environmentally beneficial practice. Martu People burn small patches each year while allowing other patches to regrow, creating a mosaic across the land of burnt and unburnt patches. This approach increases the biodiversity of the desert ecosystem as each patch is in a different stage of regrowth with a different set of flora and fauna. Without burning, the desert collapses into homogeneity. Specifically, this practice supports lizard populations which are a major food source for local Nations. Their study is shaped around the Indigenous perspective that ecosystem engineering is important to ecological health and biodiversity. The authors posit that the forced removal of Martu People from lands has negatively impacted the ecosystem. The return of Martu People has resulted in the rebound of endemic species.
Implications: Considering how oftentimes conservation efforts advanced fortress practices that excluded Indigenous people from their land, it is essential to recognize humans and especially Indigenous communities as evolutionary and necessary ecosystem engineers. It is unfortunate that Western science requires these kinds of studies to validate increasing the involvement of Indigenous communities and integration of TEK in management solutions.This study employed novel and equitable practices as it integrated the local Indigenous knowledge to shape its focus and analyses. They collaborated with the Martu people to conduct the study as well. Considering how these kinds of studies often have a focus on supporting Indigenous practices and communities, it would be equitable if they also featured an analysis and interpretation from these groups.
Reference: Bird, R. B., Tayor, N., Codding, B. F., & Bird, D. W. (2013). Niche construction and dreaming logic: Aboriginal patch mosaic burning and Varanid lizards (Varanus gouldii ) in Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 280(1772).
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An Artificial Landscape-Scale Fishery in the Bolivian Amazon
Bioregion: Bolivia
Tags: fisheries, aquaculture, Bauré
Summary: The ancestors of the Bauré Indigenous Nation of Bolivia oversaw the construction of a landscape-scale earthen causeway system that harnessed rainy season floods and the ample fish they provided. This article briefly discusses a 525 km2 anthropogenic landscape made of raised fields, large settlement mounds, earthen fish weirs, and causeways. Through this technology, it is conjectured that Buaré Peoples were able to harvest enough to sustain large and dense populations in their architected savanna floodplain. Bauré people and their aquaculture system were greatly compromised by Spanish arrival and colonization. This ancient system is still visible on the land despite nearly 500 years of weathering.
Implications: This article joins a plethora of studies confirming the anthropogenic nature of the Amazon river basin. It demonstrates the ingenuity of Buaré ancestors and their ability to wield immense influence across hundreds of square kilometers to generate sustainable and predictable food sources.
Reference: Erickson, C. L. (2000). An artificial landscape-scale fishery in the Bolivian Amazon. Nature, 408, 190–193. https://doi.org/10.3390/d2040619
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Indigenous Soil Management in the Latin American Tropics: Neglected Knowledge of Native People
Bioregion: Brazil
Tags: Mẽbêngôkre, Kayapó, terra preta, Amazonian dark earths, soil management, agroecology, agroforestry
Summary: Mẽbêngôkre (also known as Kayapó) soil management techniques and their effects were surveyed and compared to colonial agriculture. It was shown that, in terms of weight, Mẽbêngôkre soil systems generated three times more food per acre compared to neighboring commercial farming operations. Mẽbêngôkre soil management strategies include: sequential harvesting and replanting, manipulated fallows, mulching, nutrient additions, systematic, periodic burning within the agricultural field for the entire production sequence, planting fire-adapted root crop cultivars, and planting a mixture of short and long cycle cultigens and cultivars. Nutrient additions and soil amendments included ash, mulch, termite nests, forest litter, palm fronds, composting, dung and enriched soils, crop residues and periodic in-field burning. Innovative planting strategies included planting along roads, in natural ecosystem gaps, in human-made forest gaps, plantations in mature forest, fruit groves in memory of the dead, household gardens, on hill slopes and in swidden plots.
Implications: This article has great implications for the regenerative cultivation community by showing there are tried and true, ancient techniques for regenerating soil that we can learn from within Indigenous communities the world over. It also shows that the Amazon River Basin ecosystem, in addition to the terra preta phenomenon, are not “naturally occurring”, but anthropogenic in nature. This article and others like it encourage land return to Indigenous stewardship so these techniques can continue to propagate. These ancient systems once thought to be “primitive” are far more productive than mainstream farming systems, while simultaneously supporting biodiversity.
Reference: Hecht, S. (1992). Indigenous soil management in the Latin American tropics: neglected knowledge of native people. In Wim H., Coen R. and Erik V.D.W. (Eds), Let farmers judge. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, England, UK: VII, 129-41.
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Forgotten fires: Native Americans and the transient wilderness
Bioregion: Turtle Island (North America)
Tags: pyrogenic stewardship, resilience, regenerative cultivation, land use, soil stewardship
Summary: This volume is a meticulous and thorough collection of hundreds of accounts of Indigenous pyrogenic stewardship throughout North America. Many of these accounts are from Euro-American explorers, soldiers, and colonists from as early as the 16th century. It highlights the ways in which these routine fires enhance soil quality by injecting them with nutrient dense ash, and the use of fire to create and maintain grassland ecosystems to feed large populations of herbivores. It was originally written in 1908 and republished by the University of Oklahoma in 2002, edited by M. Kat Anderson (author of Tending the Wild) and Henry T. Lewis.
Implications: This book showcases the ubiquity of prescribed fire in precolonial North America. It challenges the notion "pristine wilderness" at the point of European contact. It illustrates, with ample evidence and supporting citations, how the Americas were profoundly and intentionally sculpted by Indigenous fire managers. Particularly, Stewart focuses on how fire is used to create and maintain grassland ecosystems, which supported massive herbivore populations such as elk, deer, and bison. Native peoples also maintained fertile grasslands to open up canopy and facilitate travel for humans and non-humans. This article points to the correlation between precolonial meat/protein production and grasslands maintenance. This is a form of habitat expansion which in turn increases food availability. To re-implement these food systems strategies, we would need large, unfenced tracts of land to study the effects of seasonal burning on grasslands management, buffalo population rehabilitation, and landscape scale soil-management.
Reference: Stewart, O. C., Lewis, L.T., Anderson, M.K. (Eds.). (2002). Forgotten fires: Native Americans and the transient wilderness. University of Oklahoma Press.
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Lacandon Maya ecosystem management: Sustainable design for subsistence and environmental restoration
Bioregion: Chiapas, Mexico
Tags: soil stewardship, land use, Indigenous forestry, regenerative cultivation
Summary: The article assessed the Lacandon agroforestry practice of the Yucatec Maya Indigenous group in Chiapas, Mexico. The system entails systematic, gentle burning of key areas (swidden agriculture) with several successional stages after a burn, and primary forest preserved in a portion of the land. The researchers studied how this method of agroforestry affects plant and bird richness in addition to soil characteristics. They found that in the successional (changes in species in a community over time), or fallow stages, edible species dominate the biodiversity, and plant diversity, soil organic matter, and total nitrogen are all correlated with various successional stages. Almost all of the dominant species in the fallow stages are used by the Indigenous communities, including more than 60% of all the species. The researchers note how the Lacandon community actively works to reduce soil degradation and preserve soil carbon through the species they plant. After 30 years of Lacandon practices, their soil and plant biodiversity reflected that of primary forests.
Implications: Throughout the world, Indigenous people continue to be displaced from their land because of Western-led forest conservation. This strategy assumes that natural spaces are best conserved without any human intervention although Indigenous people have inhabited their spaces for tens of thousands of years. However, the authors posit that conservation efforts need to also support subsistence, and Indigenous food systems produce beneficial ecological effects. They also recognize the Lacandon system could be used to restore tropical forests. Their study is important because it shows that Indigenous agriculture can maintain biodiversity and soil health while supporting traditional Indigenous food systems and lifeways.
Reference: Diemont, S. A., & Martin, J. F. (2009). Lacandon Maya ecosystem management: sustainable design for subsistence and environmental restoration. Ecological Applications, 19(1), 254-266.
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Cultural Niche Construction: An Introduction
Bioregion: Universal
Tags: soil stewardship, land use, resilience, Indigenous forestry
Summary: Authors share how niche-construction theory (a sub-study of ecology) may apply to human beings and their environments. Niche-construction theory highlights how organisms are not victims of circumstance but often shape their own destiny by creating their own environments (niches). They convey that organisms can influence the trajectory and direction of their own evolution through the process of niche construction, which affects their descendants and other species. This theory is applied to human beings and replaces "hunter-gatherer" labels often ascribed to ecological cultures with the label of active and intentional agents of biocultural reality.
Implications: Authors convey how people shape the land as much as they are shaped by the land. This praxis in turn shapes cultural traditions and practices. Indigenous ethics and spiritualities are inherently tied to their environments. The study shows a pathway by which these relationships may be shaped.
Reference: Laland, K.N., O’Brien, M.J. (2011). Cultural Niche Construction: An Introduction. Biol Theory (6), 191–202. doi:10.1007/s13752-012-0026-6
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