Introduction
Oftentimes we clear-cut forests to make room for “farms” not realizing that the forest is already a farm and that the whole earth is a garden, if you know how to work with it. Indigenous agroforestry, prairie management, and soil cultivation is different than conventional methods for several reasons. First, forests are systematically thinned so trees are widely spaced (10-15 trees maximum/hectare). This helps each tree have plenty of sunlight, nutrients, and water to be healthy and resistant to disease. It allows for regenerative prescribed fires to be safely applied since there are not enough trees for a catastrophic fire to develop. Second, animals are not fenced in, but are often attracted to key areas through the gentle burning of the forest floor. This routine burning stimulates the growth of nutrient dense grasses which attracts bison, deer, elk, sheep, goats, horse species and other herbivores. Third, Indigenous management has an extreme emphasis on a biodiversity without extensive external fertilizers/inputs. This is true of the Chestnut groves that once grew from Maine to Georgia in what is now called the United States. It is also true of the oak groves of California which once provided the bulk of the caloric supply for Indigenous civilizations in the area. Fourth, agricultural plots are often integrated into the surrounding ecosystem, working with the forces of nature instead of separate from them. As the citations demonstrate below, these are highly efficient and high-yield systems, often out-producing their commercial counterparts.
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Cultural Niche Construction: An Introduction
Tags: soil stewardship, land use, resilience, indigenous forestry
Summary: The authors convey that the niche-construction theory is important for understanding evolution. They convey that organisms can engineer their environment to direct their evolution, which affects their descendants and other species. The article describes how this theory connects to other social science theories focused on explaining human practices. It communicates that niche construction can impact the environment and contribute to creating cultural traditions. The authors also demonstrate how niche construction results from genetic, ontogenetic, and cultural forces.
Implications: The article benefits from the fact that the authors communicated how the niche-evolutionary theory is relevant to different disciplines. Moreover, it is an important theory to consider when analyzing the relationship between indigenous people and their environment. The authors convey how as people have shaped the land, they have also shaped their cultural practices. Indigenous ethics and religion are inherently tied to their environments, and this study shows a pathway through which these relationships could have been shaped.
Reference: Laland, K.N., O’Brien, M.J. (2011). Cultural Niche Construction: An Introduction. Biol Theory (6), 191–202.
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Indigenous perspectives of ecosystem-based management and co-governance in the Pacific Northwest: lessons for Aotearoa
Bioregion: Pacific North, Great Bear Rainforest, Maori, Heiltsuk, Heida
Summary: The authors of the paper describe how current environmental degradation can be solved by looking towards the past, specifically, by focusing on Indigenous tribes’ impact on the pacific north region of the United States. Following two case studies conducted in the pacific north, as well as in the Great Bear rainforest, the authors were interested in understanding resource management techniques of the Maori tribe- with the entire study being conducted from the Maori narrative and perspective, also known as the Indigenous Standpoint Theory. The authors use data collected from Indigenous literature, online media, and semi-structured interviews with the Heiltsuk and Haida nations. Because the paper centers Indigenous voices, there are 5 key elements that were presented in the paper: power dynamics, jurisdiction, adaptive management, agency, and recognition of Indigenous knowledge. Using this, the authors were able to develop an understanding of the management techniques employed by the Indigenous tribes of the region.
Implications: What is wholly important about this paper is that it works to center the voices of the Indigenous tribes that are being studied. By conducting a case study analysis that interviews those who have been the most impacted, the authors are able to offer a clear narrative of the impact that Indigenous peoples had on their lands – while also extracting lessons learned in order to provide best tips and practices for mitigating environmental degradation.
Reference: Tiakiwai, S. J., Kilgour, J. T., & Whetu, A. (2017). Indigenous perspectives of ecosystem-based management and co-governance in the Pacific Northwest: lessons for Aotearoa. AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 13(2), 69-79.
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Use of Tropical Rainforests by Native Amazonians
Tags: soil stewardship, indigenous agroforestry, land use, pyrogenic stewardship
Summary: This is an early article in the scholarly trend to recognize the size, sophistication, efficiency, and sustainability of Indigenous Amazonian civilizations and their agricultural practices. The author summarizes Indigenous environmental management of the Amazonian River Basin through diverse disciplines, with special attention to the Tukanoan Nation. The article describes the benefits of traditional agriculture in terms of soil organic matter protection, pest protection, and species diversity. It mentions the dense populations these systems have upheld and the longstanding presence of Indigenous civilizations in the area. It addresses how systematic application of gentle fire (swidden) results in landscape mosaics surrounding Indigenous settlements. Researchers also describe how Indigenous Nations manipulate and use forests for hunting, fishing, and collecting plant relatives. They then compare Indigenous environmental management with that of colonial communities, concluding that the latter clears more land but cultivates less.
Implications: This is one of the first articles to change previous Western conceptions of Amazonia as "untouched wilderness" and reframing it as a heavily humanized landscape, completely accustomed to and dependent on large-scale, routine human management. The article is focused on how Indigenous agroforestry systems are models for sustainability. It explains the diverse practices and foods that flourish in the area, and more so before populations were decimated by colonization. A flood of articles came after these early studies sharing in more fine grained detail the practices, ancient time periods, and abundant food systems found throughout Amazonia.
Reference: Dufour, D. L. (1990). Use of tropical rainforests by native Amazonians. BioScience, 40(9), 652-659.
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Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of California's Natural Resources
Tags: indigenous agroforestry, indigenous land management, fire, ecological knowledge, gardening
Summary: The author of this large volume presents a wealth of information on native land management of California. Some of this is gleaned from interviews with Indigenous People regarding how and when areas were burned, which plants were eaten and which were used for basketry, and how plants were tended. The complex picture that emerges from this and other historical source material dispels the hunter-gatherer stereotype long perpetuated in anthropological and historical literature. We come to see California's indigenous people as active agents of environmental change and stewardship. Tending the Wild persuasively argues that this traditional ecological knowledge is essential if we are to successfully meet the challenge of living sustainably.
Implications: This book dispels the notion of California Native people as "hunter-gatherers” and reframes them more accurately as gardeners and sculptors of vast tracts of land. It highlights the importance of the routine burning of california ecosystems and how they became pyro-adapted. This indicates that California's wildfires are not simply a function of climate change, but concurrently a function of the prohibition of Indigenous fires throughout the region in 17th-21st centuries.
Reference: Anderson, K. (2005). Tending the wild: Native American knowledge and the management of California's natural resources. Univ of California Press.
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Maori women leading local sustainable food systems
Bioregion: Maori, New Zealand (Aotearoa)
Tags: indigenous agroforestry, resilience
Summary: The authors examined the implementation and interpretation of agricultural practices by Maori women-led community farms. The authors implemented participatory research practices as they built relationships with four Maori food leaders and conducted interviews with them. The women employ traditional, agroecology and permaculture practices to increase local sustainability, self-sufficiency, and biodiversity. All the farms employ natural farming practices that incorporate values of respect and reciprocity for the earth. The farms help build community and connection, share traditional knowledge between generations, and increase access to food. The interviews revealed Maori women are using the farms to preserve culture and traditions and connect to their ancestors through food cultivation. The farms have also contributed to practicing cultural ideals surrounding family and future generations. The leaders recounted how they have experienced healing effects from gardening and how they and their family have also experienced more connection to the land. Importantly, they recognize that their food inequities are connected to interconnected issues and that the gardens are important for their self-determination over food production and nutrition.
Implications: Although this article does not cover regional scale management, it dives deep into Maori value systems and principles that are part and parcel of pre-colonial and contemporary food systems and land management. The value system and principles are the driving force of any civilization and ultimately determiner the direction and magnitude of that culture's development. The authors do an effective job of describing the multidimensional relationship the Maori women have with their gardens and environment and the value system that underpins their relationship with the earth. They convey the spiritual connection the Maori people have to food cultivation and land stewardship that also integrates their commitment to their ancestors, family, and future generations. The article describes the principles that guide Maori farming. It may have been more complete if authors delved deeper into the specific ecological practices they are employing and food they are growing.
Reference: Stein, K., Mirosa, M., & Carter, L. (2018). Māori women leading local sustainable food systems. AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 14(2), 147-155.
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Resource Resilience, Human Niche Construction, and the Long-Term Sustainability of Pre-Columbian Subsistence Economies in the Mississippi River Valley Corridor
Bioregion: Mississippi River Valley
Tags: indigenous agroforestry, indigenous land management
Summary: This study details how pre-Columbian Indigenous Nations managed various districts of the Mississippi River Valley. Authors posit that throughout the Middle and Late Holocene periods, indigenous groups in the Mississippi River environmental corridor relied heavily on protein from a set of animal species/species groups (white-tailed deer, fish, migratory waterfowl) that combined both a high biotic potential and relative immunity from over-exploitation. At the same time, they practiced an integrated overall strategy of restructuring vegetation communities in ways that enhanced and expanded the habitats of many important food sources.
Implications: The study reframes “small-scale” Indigenous societies from low-impact to highly influential civilizations, augmenting and shaping habitat on large scales. The authors of this annotated bibliography have a healthy suspicion of historical analyses that frame Native civilizations as “small-scale” because we believe Native Nations were much more heavily populated than previously conceived. The discussion of the anthropogenic nature of Mississippi River Valley biomes is extremely important.
Reference: Smith, B. D. (2009). Resource resilience, human niche construction, and the long-term sustainability of pre-Columbian subsistence economies in the Mississippi River valley corridor. Journal of Ethnobiology, 29(2), 167-183.
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The legacy of 4,500 years of polyculture agroforestry in the eastern Amazon.
Bioregion: Eastern Amazon
Summary: The authors focused on identifying how historical land use impacted Amazon vegetation by employing diverse methods. They assess historical data on three phases going back to 8,500 years ago. They argue that Indigenous civilization ofthe area began practicing polyculture, hunting, and fishing around 4500 years ago with maize and sweet potato arriving at that time. Edible plants, pyrogenic stewardship, and ADE increased after 2,500 years ago. The data indicate that Indigenous communities managed land in mosaics of succession and did not advance large crop-clearing. Their practises increased edible plants and Amazonian Dark Earth soils, which could explain the current hyperdominance of edible species near known settlement areas.
Implications: This study shows us the depth and breadth of positive human influence in the Eastern Amazon. It shows us that many societies work to increase the edibility of their cities and settlements, instead of focusing on non-edible or ornamental species for urban landscaping. These ancient cities were surrounded by food and that legacy can still be seen today in the environment and culture of present day Amazonian Native Nations. This work helps us see how Indigenous civilizations in the Amazon benefited from, shaped and enhanced their environment while concurrently increasing biodiversity.
Reference: Maezumi, S.Y., Alves, D., Robinson, M., de Souza, J.G., Levis, C., Barnett, R.L., Almeida de Oliveira,E., Urrego, D., Schaan, D., Iriate, J. (2018).The legacy of 4,500 years of polyculture agroforestry in the eastern Amazon. Nature Plants 4, 540–547.
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How pristine are tropical forests? An ecological perspective on the pre-Columbian human footprint in Amazonia and implications for contemporary conservation
Bioregion: Amazon Basin
Tags: land use
Summary: The article analyzes the pristine myth of ecosystems that states that natural forces are responsible for the current environmental state of the Amazon basin. They argue that results from studies should not be extrapolated to the whole basin because of the current and past landscape heterogeneity. Moreover, they convey that species richness is not always due to human influence as natural disturbance can increase abundance and other processes can be responsible for species dispersal. They argue that current conservation efforts should move past understanding historical land use and focus on protecting current biodiversity from human actions.
Implications: The authors conclude their article by stating that assessing historical land use in the Amazon will not contribute to modern conservation efforts. However, many indigenous people are interested in learning the management practices of their ancestors, knowledge which many of them have been disconnected from, and from which Western science continues to draw inspiration for sustainable agriculture. The conclusion of the authors indicate that they are not connected to Indigenous researchers, movements, or communities. It is important to continue discussing how the pristine myth is incorrect because it has been used to exclude indigenous people from their land through fortress conservation and land pillaging.
Reference: Barlow, J., Gardner T.A., Lees A.C., Parry, L., Peres, C.A. (2012). How pristine are tropical forests? An ecological perspective on the pre-Columbian human footprint in Amazonia and implications for contemporary conservation. Biological Conservation, 151(1), 45-49, ISSN 0006-3207,
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Native American Influences on the Forest Composition of the Allegheny Plateau, Northwest Pennsylvania
Bioregion: NW PA / Allegheny Plateau
Summary: In the article, authors explore the 6,500 year-old relationship between Indigenous populations in northwest Pennsylvania and forest types of the Allegheny Plateau during the Holocene period. Over the course of 50 years, they analyze the land's ecology to identify the forest types that sustained Indigenous settlements. The primary aim of the research was to understand the land management techniques used in the region. The study reveals that oak, hickory, and chestnut forests were dominant in these Indigenous villages and continued to thrive even after European settlement. While the article highlights the land management practices of the Haudenosaunee(Iroquois) Confederacy, it acknowledges that similar methods were employed by neighboring nations.
Implications: This article helps us to understand that Indigneous civilizations intentionally managed Northeast landscapes for much longer than popularly conceived. It also helps us to see that these areas were heavily influenced by human beings instead of the "Terra Nullius" usually reported by colonial historians. The article argues, based on the study’s analysis, that Indigenous nations were directly responsible for shaping the forest composition of the Allegheny Plateau in northwest Pennsylvania. It recognizes that, over 6,500 years ago, Native nations across the region employed collective and shared land management techniques, demonstrating a unified approach to tending the land.
Reference: Black, B. A., Ruffner, C. M., & Abrams, M. D. (2006). Native American influences on the forest composition of the Allegheny Plateau, northwest Pennsylvania. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 36(5), 1266-1275.
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Climate, Ecology and History in North America’s Tallgrass Prairie Borderlands
Bioregion: Upper Illinois River Valley
For the Kaskaskias Nation/Illiniwek Confederation/Illinois Confederary of the Illinois region, the prairies they created and inhabited became a vital ecozone in the Illinois way of life. However, in the late 1600’s, their citizens were forced out by the French. The article points out that upon arrival by the French, French settlers studied the land to understand the ways in which the Native nations of the region maintained the upper Illinois River Valley. Examination of the land in the study found that the landscape was not homogenous, but rather, was equally divided into prairies and forests - making the land incredibly unique in nature. Between the woodlands and the grasslands, which were divided by eastern and western regions, there was one of the most distinctive ecological systems found within North America: the tallgrass prairies. For the Kaskaskias to maintain their land, like many other Indigenous groups in North America had also done to maintain their land, the most important tool that they employed was the usage of fire. Burning these prairies, these tribal members made the region more hospitable for grazers. On the land, the Kaskaskias also managed prairie as a means to maximize productivity of the land. As such, the author makes note that these civilizations were responsible for the cultivation of wild rice, elderberries, currants, dewberries, mulberries, plantain, Jerusalem artichokes, onion, milkweed, and bison. Essentially, by burning the prairies annually or semi-annually, these groups enhanced the grazing ability of the grasslands, but also used fire as an important technology for hunting.
Implications: Despite the article making use of words like “manipulation” or “exploitation” of the land, the authors place importance upon the role of the Kaskaskias upon the upper Illinois River Valley. Specifically, authors note the role Indigenous Nations played in paving the way for European settlements to thrive in the area.
Reference: Morrissey, R. M. (2019). Climate, ecology and history in North America’s Tallgrass Prairie Borderlands. Past & Present, 245(1), 39-77.
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Indigenous management of tropical forest ecosystems: the case of the Kayapo Indians of the Brazilian Amazon
Bioregion: Brazilian Amazon
The author describes the agroforestry system of the Mẽbêngôkre (Kayapó) Indigenous Nation of the Amazon region. They summarize the diverse practices and corresponding purposes as guided by an Indigenous understanding of soil, climate, insect, animal, and plant interactions. The Mẽbêngôkre Indigenous Nation influences vast areas creating a patch mosiac of plant communities used for food, building, medicine, daily life, and to attract game animals. Fire is used as a tool of forestry management as they regenerate soils and plant life. The Mẽbêngôkre create and manage microclimates to cultivate certain plant species as well as employ a wide variety of locally available and innovative soil amendments. They employ a wide variety of planting techniques such as home gardens for decorative and medicinal plants, sowing along roads to make food available whilst traveling, and maintaining hill gardens of tuberous plants as a food reserve in case of disaster. The article describes how the Mẽbêngôkre classification system holds different terminology for sites based on productivity, openness, temperature, and moisture.
Implications: This article proves that, contrary to popular belief, Indigenous Amazonians extensively managed their respective homelands. It shares with the world how we can transform local ecosystems into multipurpose sites of prolific abundance through the implementation of creative planting strategies, habitat expansion, anthropogenic burning, and innovative soil amendments. It also suggests that the things we need to thrive and practice sustainable agriculture can be found locally.
Reference: Posey, D. A. (1985). Indigenous management of tropical forest ecosystems: the case of the Kayapo Indians of the Brazilian Amazon. Agroforestry systems, 3(2), 139-158.
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Initial formation of an Indigenous crop complex in eastern North America at 3800 B.P.
Bioregion: Eastern North American Woodlands
Authors demonstrate Indigenous Nations of in present day Illinois were domesticating edible plant species as early as 3,800 years ago such as bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), marsh elder (Iva annua var. macrocarpa), sunflower (Helianthus annuus var. macrocarpus), and two cultivated varieties of amaranth (Chenopodium berlandieri), as well as the possible cultivation of Cucurbita pepo squash and little barley (Hordeum pusillum). The authors surmise that the development of crop complexes in the river valleys resulted from enhancement and expansion of preexisting edible landscapes. They argue against conventional explanations for Indigenous plant domestication in the area: abrupt developmental break or a necessary response to overpopulation. Authors of this annotated bibliography wish the study was carried out with greater collaboration and consultation with present day Indigenous Nations of study sites.
Implications: This article proves that Indigenous Peoples of this area generated their own domestication of species independent of other global domestication events. It also highlights the importance of a prominent Indigenous land/food management technique: expanding, enhancing, and facilitating pre-existing ecological systems. The article is important for food policy in that it identifies traditional foods eaten by Indigenous ancestors local to the Eastern Woodlands. The findings of this study could possibly assist the efforts of Indigenous communities to learn more about seed sovereignty and the significance of saving local seeds.
Reference: Smith, B. D., & Yarnell, R. A. (2009). Initial formation of an indigenous crop complex in eastern North America at 3800 BP. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(16), 6561-6566.
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Indigenous Soil Management in the Latin American Tropics: Neglected Knowledge of Native People
Bioregion: Brazil; Kayapo
Mẽbêngôkre (also known as Kayapó) soil management techniques and their effects were surveyed and compared to colonial agriculture. It was shown that, in terms of weight, Mẽbêngôkre soil systems generated three times more food per acre compared to neighboring commercial farming operations. Mẽbêngôkre soil management strategies include: sequential harvesting and replanting, manipulated fallows, mulching, nutrient additions, systematic, periodic burning within the agricultural field for the entire production sequence, planting fire-adapted root crop cultivars, and planting a mixture of short and long cycle cultigens and cultivars. Nutrient additions and soil amendments included ash, mulch, termite nests, forest litter, palm fronds, composting, dung and enriched soils, crop residues and periodic in-field burning. Innovative planting strategies included planting along roads, in natural ecosystem gaps, in human-made forest gaps, plantations in mature forest, fruit groves in memory of the dead, household gardens, on hill slopes and in swidden plots.
Implications: This article has great implications for the regenerative cultivation community by showing there are tried and true, ancient techniques for regenerating soil that we can learn from within Indigenous communities the world over. It also shows that the Amazon River Basin ecosystem, in addition to the terra preta phenomenon, are not “naturally occurring”, but anthropogenic in nature. This article and others like it encourage land return to Indigenous stewardship so these techniques can continue to propagate. These ancient systems once thought to be “primitive” are far more productive than mainstream farming systems, while simultaneously supporting biodiversity.
Reference: Hecht, S. (1992). Indigenous soil management in the Latin American tropics: neglected knowledge of native people. In Wim H., Coen R. and Erik V.D.W. (Eds), Let farmers judge. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, England, UK: VII, 129-41.
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Anthropogenic influences on Zuni agricultural soils
This study measured soil quality before and after cultivation by Zuni farmers in present day New Mexico. It was found that, due to the strategic placement of fields at the base of nutrient-dense watersheds, where fields are constantly replenished by monsoons with nutrients and irrigation, there was no loss of nutrient density after continuous planting of fields. Some fields were found to have been cultivated continuously for over 1000 years. In this desert ecosystem, farmers create abundant crop yields, relying solely on the nutrients and water from monsoon events.
Implications: This article reflects the ability of Indigenous food science to solve such problems as: 1) pollution and costs associated with synthetic fertilizers, 2) costs and issues associated with the importation of outside irrigation, 3) the decentralization of food sources for communities, 4) sustainable agriculture in arid climates and 5) the impacts of climate change/drought in conventional agricultural methods. This article highlights the ability of Zuni farmers to maintain fertile fields without any importation of outside irrigation or fertilizer. It also highlights a common trend we see in Indigenous Food Systems: the technique of working with pre-existing forces of the land, ecology, topography and hydrology to minimize the need for energetic inputs such as human labor and non-local materials/irrigation/fertilizers.
Reference: Homburg, J. A., Sandor, J. A., & Norton, J. B. (2005). Anthropogenic influences on Zuni agricultural soils. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, 20(7), 661-693.https://doi.org/10.1002/gea.20076
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Terracing in the Mixteca Alta, Mexico: Cycles of Resilience of an Ancient Land-Use Strategy
Bioregion: Mixteca alta region
Tags: resilience, land use, soil stewardship
The article explores the trajectory of terracing of Ñuu Savi (Mixtec) Peoples in Oaxaca, Mexico by employing integration of archaeological, geomorphological, ethnohistorical, and ethnographic information through the lens of resilience. Through interviews, Indigenous farmers recounted that the terraces were constructed by historical and present generations, and they shared how they have practices for growing different maize varieties, considering their growing cycles and changing soil and climate conditions. Their complex and hyperlocalized practices show how they have developed a detailed understanding of the interconnections across time and space between their people, their environment, and their relatives. The authors also provide information as to how terracing benefits soil health and agriculture – showing the benefits of Indigenous practices. The article then provides information about how terracing has undergone resilience cycles of establishment and abandonment in the region in response to socio-political forces.
Implications: Much Western research on Indigenous history and land management excludes the knowledge and participation of Indigenous people. However, in this study, the authors interviewing local Indigenous farmers about the history and practice of terracing, which recognizes that Indigenous Nations store knowledge of the history of their land and people. The research would have been more complete if it included the cultural or spiritual background for terracing in its analysis of its historical use which probably influenced this practice. It is also important that the article recognizes how colonialism and imperialism have harmed Indigenous people, and therefore made the transmission of Indigenous knowledge more difficult. The authors address how the global economy forces Indigenous people to assimilate their lifestyles and foodways in order to survive, which contributes to the degradation of Indigenous knowledge and connections, in addition to harm to the environment. Nonetheless, as the article shows that the practice of terracing has been resilient to historical, socio-political pressures, it also shows the resilience of Indigenous people as they maintained their cultures and sacred relationships to their land.
Reference: Perez Rodriguez, V., Anderson, K.C. Terracing in the Mixteca Alta, Mexico: Cycles of Resilience of an Ancient Land-Use Strategy. Hum Ecol 41, 335–349 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-013-9578-8
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Lacandon Maya ecosystem management: sustainable design for subsistence and environmental restoration
Bioregion: Chiapas, Mexico
Tags: soil stewardship, land use, indigenous forestry, regenerative cultivation
Summary: The article assessed the Lacandon agroforestry practice of the Yucatec Maya Indigenous group in Chiapas, Mexico. The system entails systematic, gentle burning of key areas (swidden agriculture) with several successional stages after a burn, and primary forest preserved in a portion of the land. The researchers studied how this method of agroforestry affects plant and bird richness in addition to soil characteristics. They found that in the successional (changes in species in a community over time), or fallow stages, edible species dominate the biodiversity, and plant diversity, soil organic matter, and total nitrogen are all correlated with various successional stages. Almost all of the dominant species in the fallow stages are used by the Indigenous communities, including more than 60% of all the species. The researchers note how the Lacandon community actively works to reduce soil degradation and preserve soil carbon through the species they plant. After 30 years of Lacandon practices, their soil and plant biodiversity reflected that of primary forests.
Implications: Throughout the world, Indigenous people continue to be displaced from their land because of Western-led forest conservation. This strategy assumes that natural spaces are best conserved without any human intervention although Indigenous people have inhabited their spaces for tens of thousands of years. However, the authors posit that conservation efforts need to also support subsistence, and Indigenous food systems produce beneficial ecological effects. They also recognize the Lacandon system could be used to restore tropical forests. Their study is important because it shows that Indigenous agriculture can maintain biodiversity and soil health while supporting traditional Indigenous food systems and lifeways.
Reference: Diemont, S. A., & Martin, J. F. (2009). Lacandon Maya ecosystem management: sustainable design for subsistence and environmental restoration. Ecological Applications, 19(1), 254-266.
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Bluegrass Land and Life: Land Character, Plants, and Animals of the Inner Bluegrass Region of Kentucky: Past, Present, and Future
Bioregion: Bluegrass Region of Kentucky
Tags: soil stewardship, land use, resilience
Although the authors of this bibliography disagree with this publication's: 1) use of the word "Indian" to describe Indigenous Peoples, 2) minimizing the extent Indigenous Nations influenced the Bluegrass region of Kentucky, 3) only depiction of Indigenous Peoples as violent and warlike, and 4) general assessment of the historical ecology of the area, we do find the article useful on some accounts. For example, the article contains many interesting mentions of the ubiquity of bison in the bluegrass region showing that this was an important food source and management priority for pre-colonial Indigenous land stewards. It is also interesting that the publication mentions multiple plant species used and cultivated by Native nations. For example, it mentions "Indian Cup", an edible and medicinal plant used by local Native nations, "Indian Plantain", an Indigenous wound and cancer treatment, "Indian Hemp", "Indian tobacco", and “Indian strawberry” as important features of the Bluegrass ecosystem. Moreover, the publication is useful for understanding the outdated and prejudiced view of Indigenous Peoples and the related omission of Indigenous influence and heritage present in many scientific works.
Implications: This publication contradicts itself by mentioning the ubiquitous use and cultivation of plant and animal species in the Bluegrass region by pre-colonial Indigenous nations, while concurrently omitting the role of Indigenous Peoples in the creation and maintenance of the Bluegrass ecosystem. Nevertheless it provides invaluable insights into the attitudes of local scholars towards Indigenous Peoples, as well as important evidence of the kinds of plants and animals that were the relatives and management priorities of pre-colonial Indigenous nations.
Reference: Wharton, M. E., & Barbour, R. W. (2014). Bluegrass land and life: land character, plants, and animals of the Inner Bluegrass Region of Kentucky: past, present, and future. University Press of Kentucky.
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Classification and Use of Natural and Anthropogenic Soils by Indigenous Communities of the Upper Amazon Region of Colombia
Bioregion: Quetta Region of Columbian Amazon
Tags: soil stewardship, land use, pyrogenic stewardship
Summary: The study analyzed soil classification and use by four Indigenous communities in the Middle Quetta Region of the Colombian Amazon. The researchers conducted interviews, field studies, and worked with the Indigenous communities to create maps of soils and land use. Indigenous communities recognized two layers of soil, the workable top layer and the dead underlayer. Researchers also classified nine different types of soils of varying usefulness for agriculture; Amazonian Dark Earths (ADEs) was ranked as the best soil for food production. With varying accounts, Indigenous knowledge recognizes that some soils were produced naturally while ADEs were created with fire. The Indigenous people also remember that historical inhabitants employed ADE to produce food. The Indigenous people estimate the productivity of swiddens based on their soil and vegetation indicators, and recognize plant species for their ability to increase organic matter and soil productivity. Their communities have low populations, so they do not see limited forest production, and they do not choose sites for their crops based on soil fertility.
Implications: This article is important in that it shows how traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has maintained information on historical techniques while advancing comprehensive ecological understandings; both which challenge the Western dominion over valid knowledge. The results also acknowledge Indigenous people remember that ADE were created with the use of fire, which Western science has only learned through multiple studies. This implies that Western science needs to consult Indigenous people first before conducting studies on their land practices and environments. Moreover, the study indicates how Indigenous people developed expert knowledge of their soils for thousands of years. Through their ancestral wisdom, they were able to create fertile soils in a low fertility area, and they continue to maintain understanding of fertility of different soil types. The study shows how Indigenous people have a historical and complex understanding of the environments they have managed for thousands of years. Its results show that Western science needs to question its supposed superiority over other knowledge systems.
Reference: Peña-Venegas, C. P., Stomph, T., Verschoor, G., Echeverri, J. A., & Struik, P. C. (2016). Classification and use of natural and anthropogenic soils by indigenous communities of the upper Amazon region of Colombia. Human Ecology, 44(1), 1-15.